Read Ebook: Aeroplanes by Zerbe James Slough

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Ebook has 785 lines and 44898 words, and 16 pages

To explain this we cite the following illustration: Two bodies, each having a mass of 4 pounds, and one inch apart, are attracted toward each other, so they touch. If one has twice the mass of the other, the smaller will draw the larger only one-quarter of an inch, and the large one will draw the other three-quarters of an inch, thus confirming the law that two bodies will attract each other in proportion to their mass.

Suppose, now, that these balls are placed two inches apart,--that is, twice the distance. As each is, we shall say, four pounds in weight, the square of each would be 16. This does not mean that there would be sixteen times the attraction, but, as the law says, inversely as the square of the distance, so that at two inches there is only one-sixteenth the attraction as at one inch.

If the cord of one of the balls should be cut, it would fall to the earth, for the reason that the attractive force of the great mass of the earth is so much greater than the force of attraction in its companion ball.

INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF GRAVITATION.--Gravity cannot be produced or destroyed. It acts between all parts of bodies equally; the force being proportioned to their mass. It is not affected by any intervening substance; and is transmitted instantaneously, whatever the distance may be.

While, therefore, it is impossible to divest matter of this property, there are two conditions which neutralize its effect. The first of these is position. Let us take two balls, one solid and the other hollow, but of the same mass, or density. If the cavity of the one is large enough to receive the other, it is obvious that while gravity is still present the lines of attraction being equal at all points, and radially, there can be no pull which moves them together.

DISTANCE REDUCES GRAVITATIONAL PULL.--Or the balls may be such distance apart that the attractive force ceases. At the center of the earth an object would not weigh anything. A pound of iron and an ounce of wood, one sixteen times the mass of the other, would be the same,--absolutely without weight.

If the object should be far away in space it would not be influenced by the earth's gravity; so it will be understood that position plays an important part in the attraction of mass for mass.

HOW MOTION ANTAGONIZES GRAVITY.--The second way to neutralize gravity, is by motion. A ball thrown upwardly, antagonizes the force of gravity during the period of its ascent. In like manner, when an object is projected horizontally, while its mass is still the same, its weight is less.

Motion is that which is constantly combating the action of gravity. A body moving in a circle must be acted upon by two forces, one which tends to draw it inwardly, and the other which seeks to throw it outwardly.

The former is called centripetal, and the latter centrifugal motion. Gravity, therefore, represents centripetal, and motion centrifugal force.

If the rotative speed of the earth should be retarded, all objects on the earth would be increased in weight, and if the motion should be accelerated objects would become lighter, and if sufficient speed should be attained all matter would fly off the surface, just as dirt dies off the rim of a wheel at certain speeds.

A TANGENT.--When an object is thrown horizontally the line of flight is tangential to the earth, or at right angles to the force of gravity. Such a course in a flying machine finds less resistance than if it should be projected upwardly, or directly opposite the centripetal pull.

TANGENTIAL MOTION REPRESENTS CENTRIFUGAL PULL.--A tangential motion, or a horizontal movement, seeks to move matter away from the center of the earth, and any force which imparts a horizontal motion to an object exerts a centrifugal pull for that reason.

In Fig. 1, let A represent the surface of the earth, B the starting point of the flight of an object, and C the line of flight. That represents a tangential line. For the purpose of explaining the phenomena of tangential flight, we will assume that the missile was projected with a sufficient force to reach the vertical point D, which is 4000 miles from the starting point B.

In such a case it would now be over 5500 miles from the center of the earth, and the centrifugal pull would be decreased to such an extent that the ball would go on and on until it came within the sphere of influence from some other celestial body.

EQUALIZING THE TWO MOTIONS.--But now let us assume that the line of flight is like that shown at E, in Fig. 2, where it travels along parallel with the surface of the earth. In this case the force of the ball equals the centripetal pull,--or, to put it differently, the centrifugal equals the gravitational pull.

The constant tendency of the ball to fly off at a tangent, and the equally powerful pull of gravity acting against each other, produce a motion which is like that of the earth, revolving around the sun once every three hundred and sixty-five days.

It is a curious thing that neither Langley, nor any of the scientists, in treating of the matter of flight, have taken into consideration this quality of momentum, in their calculations of the elements of flight.

All have treated the subject as though the whole problem rested on the angle at which the planes were placed. At 45 degrees the lift and drift are assumed to be equal.

LIFT AND DRIFT.--The terms should be explained, in view of the frequent allusion which will be made to the terms hereinafter. Lift is the word employed to indicate the amount which a plane surface will support while in flight. Drift is the term used to indicate the resistance which is offered to a plane moving forwardly against the atmosphere.

In Fig. 3 the plane A is assumed to be moving forwardly in the direction of the arrow B. This indicates the resistance. The vertical arrow C shows the direction of lift, which is the weight held up by the plane.

NORMAL PRESSURE.--Now there is another term much used which needs explanation, and that is normal pressure. A pressure of this kind against a plane is where the wind strikes it at right angles. This is illustrated in Fig. 4, in which the plane is shown with the wind striking it squarely.

It is obvious that the wind will exert a greater force against a plane when at its normal. On the other hand, the least pressure against a plane is when it is in a horizontal position, because then the wind has no force against the surfaces, and the only effect on the drift is that which takes place when the wind strikes its forward edge.

HEAD RESISTANCE.--Fig. 5 shows such a plane, the only resistance being the thickness of the plane as at A. This is called head resistance, and on this subject there has been much controversy, and many theories, which will be considered under the proper headings.

If a plane is placed at an angle of 45 degrees the lift and the drift are the same, assumedly, because, if we were to measure the power required to drive it forwardly, it would be found to equal the weight necessary to lift it. That is, suppose we should hold a plane at that angle with a heavy wind blowing against it, and attach two pairs of scales to the plane, both would show the same pull.

MEASURING LIFT AND DRIFT.--In Fig. 6, A is the plane, B the horizontal line which attaches the plane to a scale C, and D the line attaching it to the scale E. When the wind is of sufficient force to hold up the plane, the scales will show the same pull, neglecting, of course, the weight of the plane itself.

PRESSURE AT DIFFERENT ANGLES.--What every one wants to know, and a subject on which a great deal of experiment and time have been expended, is to determine what the pressures are at the different angles between the horizontal, and laws have been formulated which enable the pressures to be calculated.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIFT AND DRIFT IN MOTION.--The first observation is directed to the differences that exist between the lift and drift, when the plane is placed at an angle of less than 45 degrees. A machine weighing 1000 pounds has always the same lift. Its mass does not change. Remember, now, we allude to its mass, or density.

We are not now referring to weight, because that must be taken into consideration, in the problem. As heretofore stated, when an object moves horizontally, it has less weight than when at rest. If it had the same weight it would not move forwardly, but come to rest.

When in motion, therefore, while the lift, so far as its mass is concerned, does not change, the drift does decrease, or the forward pull is less than when at 45 degrees, and the decrease is less and less until the plane assumes a horizontal position, where it is absolutely nil, if we do not consider head resistance.

TABLES OF LIFT AND DRIFT.--All tables of Lift and Drift consider only the air pressures. They do not take into account the fact that momentum takes an important part in the translation of an object, like a flying machine.

A mass of material, weighing 1000 pounds while at rest, sets up an enormous energy when moving through the air at fifty, seventy-five, or one hundred miles an hour. At the latter speed the movement is about 160 feet per second, a motion which is nearly sufficient to maintain it in horizontal flight, independently of any plane surface.

Such being the case, why take into account only the angle of the plane? It is no wonder that aviators have not been able to make the theoretical considerations and the practical demonstrations agree.

WHY TABLES OF LIFT AND DRIFT ARE WRONG.-- A little reflection will show why such tables are wrong. They were prepared by using a plane surface at rest, and forcing a blast of air against the plane placed at different angles; and for determining air pressures, this is, no doubt, correct. But it does not represent actual flying conditions. It does not show the conditions existing in an aeroplane while in flight.

To determine this, short of actual experiments with a machine in horizontal translation, is impossible, unless it is done by taking into account the factor due to momentum and the element attributable to the lift of the plane itself due to its impact against the atmosphere.

LANGLEY'S LAW.--The law enunciated by Langley is, that the greater the speed the less the power required to propel it. Water as a propelling medium has over seven hundred times more force than air. A vessel having, for instance, twenty horse power, and a speed of ten miles per hour, would require four times that power to drive it through the water at double the speed. The power is as the square of the speed.

With air the conditions are entirely different. The boat submergence in the water is practically the same, whether going ten or twenty miles an hour. The head resistance is the same, substantially, at all times in the case of the boat; with the flying machine the resistance of its sustaining surfaces decreases.

Without going into a too technical description of the reasoning which led to the discovery of the law of air pressures, let us try and understand it by examining the diagram, Fig. 7.

A represents a plane at an angle of 45 degrees, moving forwardly into the atmosphere in the direction of the arrows B. The measurement across the plane vertically, along the line B, which is called the sine of the angle, represents the surface impact of air against the plane.

In Fig. 8 the plane is at an angle of 27 degrees, which makes the distance in height across the line C just one-half the length of the line B of Fig. 7, hence the surface impact of the air is one-half that of Fig. 7, and the drift is correspondingly decreased.

MOVING PLANES VS. WINDS.--In this way Boisset, Duchemin, Langley, and others, determined the comparative drift, and those results have been largely relied upon by aviators, and assumed to be correct when applied to flying machines.

That they are not correct has been proven by the Wrights and others, the only explanation being that some errors had been made in the calculations, or that aviators were liable to commit errors in observing the true angle of the planes while in flight.

MOMENTUM NOT CONSIDERED.--The great factor of momentum has been entirely ignored, and it is our desire to press the important point on those who begin to study the question of flying machines.

THE FLIGHT OF BIRDS.--Volumes have been written concerning observations on the flight of birds. The marvel has been why do soaring birds maintain themselves in space without flapping their wings. In fact, it is a much more remarkable thing to contemplate why birds which depend on flapping wings can fly.

THE DOWNWARD BEAT.--It is argued that the downward beat of the wings is so much more rapid than the upward motion, that it gets an action on the air so as to force the body upwardly. This is disposed of by the wing motion of many birds, notoriously the crow, whose lazily-flapping wings can be readily followed by the eye, and the difference in movement, if any, is not perceptible.

THE CONCAVED WING.--It is also urged that the concave on the under side of the wing gives the quality of lift. Certain kinds of beetles, and particularly the common house fly, disprove that theory, as their wings are perfectly flat.

FEATHER STRUCTURE CONSIDERED.--Then the feather argument is advanced, which seeks to show that as each wing is made up of a plurality of feathers, overlapping each other, they form a sort of a valved surface, opening so as to permit air to pass through them during the period of their upward movement, and closing up as the wing descends.

It is difficult to perform this experiment with wings, so as to show such an individual feather movement. It is certain that there is nothing in the structure of the wing bone and the feather connection which points to any individual feather movement, and our observation is, that each feather is entirely too rigid to permit of such an opening up between them.

It is obvious that the wing is built up in that way for an entirely different reason. Soaring birds, which do not depend on the flapping motion, have the same overlapping feather formation.

WEBBED WINGS.--Furthermore, there are numerous flying creatures which do not have feathered wings, but web-like structures, or like the house fly, in one continuous and unbroken plane.

That birds which fly with flapping wings derive their support from the air, is undoubtedly true, and that the lift produced is due, not to the form, or shape, or area of the wing, is also beyond question. The records show that every conceivable type of outlined structure is used by nature; the material and texture of the wings themselves differ to such a degree that there is absolutely no similarity; some have concaved under surfaces, and others have not; some fly with rapidly beating wings, and others with slow and measured movements; many of them fly with equal facility without flapping movements; and the proportions of weight to wing surface vary to such an extent that it is utterly impossible to use such data as a guide in calculating what the proper surface should be for a correct flying machine.

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