Read Ebook: Respiration Calorimeters for Studying the Respiratory Exchange and Energy Transformations of Man by Benedict Francis Gano Carpenter Thorne M Thorne Martin

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unnecessary to lower the glass door to the balance case or, indeed, to close the two doors to the compartment in which the elevator is closed, as the slight air-currents do not affect the accuracy of the weighing when only 0.1 gram sensitiveness is required.

PURIFICATION OF THE AIR-CURRENT WITH SODIUM BICARBONATE.

As is to be expected, the passage of so large a volume of air through the sulphuric acid in such a relatively small space results in a slight acid odor in the air-current leaving this absorber. The amount of material thus leaving the absorber is not weighable, as has been shown by repeated tests, but nevertheless there is a sufficiently irritating acid odor to make the air very uncomfortable for subsequent respiration. It has been found that this odor can be wholly eliminated by passing the air through a can containing cotton wool and dry sodium bicarbonate. This can is not weighed, and indeed, after days of use, there is no appreciable change in its weight.

VALVES.

In order to subdivide experiments into periods as short as 1 or 2 hours, it is necessary to deflect the air-current at the end of each period from one set of purifiers to the other, in order to weigh the set used and to measure the quantity of carbon dioxide and water-vapor absorbed. The conditions under which these changes from one system to another are made, and which call for an absolutely gas-tight closure, have been discussed in detail elsewhere. It is sufficient to state here that the very large majority of mechanical valves will not serve the purpose, since it is necessary to have a pressure of some 40 millimeters of mercury on one side of the valve at the entrance to the absorber system and on the other side atmospheric pressure. A valve with an internal diameter of not less than 25 millimeters must be used, and to secure a tight closure of this large area and permit frequent opening and shutting is difficult. After experimenting with a large number of valves, a valve of special construction employing a mechanical seal ultimately bathed in mercury was used for the earlier apparatus. The possibility of contamination of the air-current by mercury vapor was duly considered and pointed out in a description of this apparatus. It was not until two years later that difficulties began to be experienced and a number of men were severely poisoned while inside the chamber. A discussion of this point has been presented elsewhere. At that time mercury valves were used both at the entrance and exit ends of the absorber system, although as a matter of fact, when the air leaves the last absorber and returns to the respiration chamber, the pressure is but a little above that of the atmosphere. Consequently, mechanical valves were substituted for mercurial valves at the exit and the toxic symptoms disappeared. In constructing the new calorimeters it seemed to be desirable to avoid all use of mercury, if possible. We were fortunate in finding a mechanical valve which suited this condition perfectly. These valves, which are very well constructed, have never failed to show complete tightness under all possible tests and are used at the exit and entrance end of the absorber system. Their workmanship is of the first order, and the valve is somewhat higher in price than ordinary mechanical valves. They have been in use on the apparatus for a year now and have invariably proved to be absolutely tight. They are easy to obtain and are much easier to manipulate and much less cumbersome than the mercury valves formerly used.

COUPLINGS.

Throughout the construction of the respiration apparatus and its various parts, it was constantly borne in mind that the slightest leak would be very disastrous for accurate oxygen determinations. At any point where there is a pressure greater or less than that of the atmosphere, special precaution must be taken. At no point in the whole apparatus is it necessary to be more careful than with the couplings which connect the various absorber systems with each other and with the valves; for these couplings are opened and closed once every hour or two and hence are subject to considerable strain at the different points. If they are not tight the experiment is a failure so far as the determination of oxygen is concerned. For the various parts of the absorber system we have relied upon the original type of couplings used in the earlier apparatus. A rubber gasket is placed between the male and female part of the coupling and the closure can be made very tight. In fact, after the absorbers are coupled in place they are invariably subjected to severe tests to prove tightness.

For connecting the piping between the calorimeter and the absorption system we use ordinary one-inch hose-couplings, firmly set up by means of a wrench and disturbed only when necessary to change from one calorimeter chamber to another.

ABSORBER TABLE.

The purifying apparatus for the air-current is compactly and conveniently placed on a solidly constructed table which can be moved about the laboratory at will. The special form of caster on the bottom of the posts of the table permits its movement about the laboratory at will and by screwing down the hand screws the table can be firmly fixed to the floor.

The details of the table are shown in fig. 30. The air coming from the calorimeter passes in the direction of the downward arrow through a 3/4-inch pipe into the blower, which is immersed in oil in an iron box F. The blower is driven by an electric motor fastened to a small shelf at the left of the table. The air leaving the blower ascends in the direction of the arrow to the valve system H, where it can be directed into one of the two parallel sets of purifiers; after it passes through these purifiers it goes through the sodium-bicarbonate can G to a duplicate valve system on top of the table. From there it passes through a pipe along the top of the table and rises in the vertical pipe to the hose connection which is coupled with the calorimeter chamber.

The electric motor is provided with a snap-switch on one of the posts of the table and a regulating rheostat which permits variations in the speed of the motor and consequently in the ventilation produced by the blower. The blower is well oiled, and as oil is gradually carried in with the air, a small pet-cock at the bottom of the T following the blower allows any accumulated oil to be drawn away from time to time. The air entering the valve system at H enters through a cross, two arms of which connect with two "white star" valves. The upper part of the cross is connected to a small rubber tubing and to the mercury manometer D, which also serves as a valve for passing a given amount of air through a series of U-tubes for analysis of the air from time to time. It is assumed that the air drawn at the point H is of substantially the same composition as that inside the chamber, an assumption that may not be strictly true, but doubtless the sample thus obtained is constantly proportional to the average composition, which fluctuates but slowly. Ordinarily the piping leading from the left-hand arm of the tube D is left open to the air and consequently the difference in the level of the mercury in the two arms of D indicates the pressure on the system. This is ordinarily not far from 40 to 50 millimeters of mercury.

The absorber table, with the U-tubes and meter for residual analyses, is shown in the foreground in fig. 2. The two white porcelain vessels with a silver-plated can between them are on the middle shelf. The sodium bicarbonate can, for removing traces of acid fumes, is connected in an upright position, while the motor, the controlling rheostat, and the blower are supported by the legs near the floor. The two rubber pipes leading from the table can be used to connect the apparatus either with the bed or chair calorimeter. In fig. 4 the apparatus is shown connected with the bed calorimeter, but just above the lowest point of the rubber tubing can be seen in the rear the coupling for one of the pipes leading from the chair calorimeter. The other is immediately below and to the left of it.

OXYGEN SUPPLY.

The residual air inside of the chamber amounts to some 1,300 liters and contains about 250 liters of oxygen. Consequently it can be seen that in an 8-hour experiment the subject could easily live during the entire time upon the amount of oxygen already present in the residual air. It has been repeatedly shown that until the per cent of oxygen falls to about 11, or about one-half normal, there is no disturbance in the respiratory exchange and therefore about 125 liters of oxygen would be available for respiration even if no oxygen were admitted. Inasmuch as the subject when at rest uses not far from 14 to 15 liters per hour, the amount originally present in the chamber would easily suffice for an 8-hour experiment. Moreover, the difficulties attending an accurate gas analysis and particularly the calculation of the total amount of oxygen are such that satisfactory determinations of oxygen consumption by this method would be impossible. Furthermore, from our previous experience with long-continued experiments of from 10 days to 2 weeks, it has been found that oxygen can be supplied to the system readily and the amount thus supplied determined accurately. Consequently, even in these short experiments, we adhere to the original practice of supplying oxygen to the air and noting the amount thus added.

The oxygen supply was formerly obtained from small steel cylinders of the highly compressed gas. This gas was made by the calcium-manganate method and represented a high degree of purity for commercial oxygen. More recently we have been using oxygen of great purity made from liquid air. Inasmuch as this oxygen is very pure and much less expensive than the chemically-prepared oxygen, extensive provisions have been made for its continued use. Instead of using small cylinders containing 10 cubic feet and attaching thereto purifying devices in the shape of soda-lime U-tubes and a sulphuric-acid drying-tube, we now use large cylinders and we have found that the oxygen from liquid air is practically free from carbon dioxide and water-vapor, the quantities present being wholly negligible in experiments such as these. Consequently, no purifying attachments are considered necessary and the oxygen is delivered directly from the cylinder. The cylinders, containing 100 cubic feet , under a pressure of 120 atmospheres, are provided with well-closing valves and weigh when fully charged 57 kilograms.

It is highly desirable to determine the oxygen to within 0.1 gram, and we are fortunate in having a balance of the type used frequently in this laboratory which will enable us to weigh this cylinder accurately with a sensitiveness of less than 0.1 gram. Since 1 liter of oxygen weighs 1.43 grams, it can be seen that the amount of oxygen introduced into the chamber can be measured by this method within 70 cubic centimeters. Even in experiments of but an hour's duration, where the amount of oxygen admitted from the cylinder is but 25 to 30 grams, it can be seen that the error in the weighing of the oxygen is much less than 1 per cent.

The earlier forms of cylinders used were provided with valves which required some special control and a rubber bag was attached to provide for any sudden rush of gas. The construction of the valve and valve-stem was unfortunately such that the well-known reduction valves could not be attached without leakage under the high pressure of 120 atmospheres. With the type of cylinder at present in use, such leakage does not occur and therefore we simply attach to the oxygen cylinder a reduction-valve which reduces the pressure from 120 atmospheres to about 2 or 3 pounds to the square inch. The cylinder, together with the reduction valve, is suspended on one arm of the balance. The equipment of the arrangement is shown in fig. 31. The cylinder is supported by a clamp K hung from the balance arm, and the reduction-valve A is shown at the top. The counterpoise S consists of a piece of 7-inch pipe, with caps at each end. At a convenient height a wooden shelf with slightly raised rim is attached.

In spite of the rigid construction of this balance, it would be detrimental to allow this enormous weight to remain on the knife-edges permanently, so provision is made for raising the cylinders on a small elevator arrangement which consists of small boxes of wood, T, into which telescope other boxes, T'. A lever handle, R, when pressed forward, raises T' by means of a roller bearing U, and when the handle is raised the total weight of the cylinders is supported on the platforms.

The balance is attached to an upright I-beam which is anchored to the floor and ceiling of the calorimeter laboratory. Two large turnbuckle eye-bolts give still greater rigidity at the bottom. The whole apparatus is inclosed in a glass case, shown in fig. 5.

AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF OXYGEN SUPPLY.

The use of the reduction-valve has made the automatic control of the oxygen supply much simpler than in the apparatus formerly used. The details of the connections somewhat schematically outlined are given in fig. 32, in which D is the oxygen cylinder, K the supporting band, A the reduction-valve, and J the tension-equalizer attached to one of the calorimeters. Having reduced the pressure to about 2 pounds by means of the reduction-valve, the supply of oxygen can be shut off by putting a pinch-cock on a rubber pipe leading from the reduction-valve to the calorimeters. Instead of using the ordinary screw pinch-cock, this connection is closed by a spring clamp. The spring E draws on the rod which is connected at L and pinches the rubber tube tightly. The tension at E can be released by an electro-magnet F, which when magnetized exercises a pull on the iron rod, extends the spring E, and simultaneously releases the pressure on the rubber tube at L. To make the control perfectly automatic, the apparatus shown on the top of the tension-equalizer J is employed. A wire ring, with a wire support, is caused to pass up through a bearing fastened to the clamp above J. As the air inside of the whole system becomes diminished in volume and the rubber cap J sinks, there is a point at which a metal loop dips into two mercury cups C and C', thus closing the circuit, which causes a current of electricity to pass through F. This releases the pressure at L, oxygen rushes in, and the rubber bag J becomes distended. As it is distended, it lifts the metal loop out of the cups, C and C', and the circuit is broken. There is, therefore, an alternate opening and closing of this circuit with a corresponding admission of oxygen. The exact position of the rubber diaphragm can be read when desired from a pointer on a graduated scale attached to a support holding the terminals of the electric wires. More frequently, however, when the volume is required, instead of filling the bag to a definite point, as shown by the pointer, a delicate manometer is attached to the can by means of a pet-cock and the oxygen is admitted by operating the switch B until the desired tension is reached.

In order to provide for the maximum sensitiveness for weighing D and its appurtenances, the electric connection is broken at the cylinder by means of the plug N and the rubber tube is connected by a glass connector which can be disconnected during the process of weighing. Obviously, provision is also made that there be no leakage of air out of the system during the weighing. The current at F is obtained by means of a storage battery O. The apparatus has been in use for some time in the laboratory and has proved successful in the highest degree.

TENSION-EQUALIZER.

The rigid walls of the calorimeter and piping necessitate some provision for minor fluctuations in the absolute volume of air in the confined system. The apparatus was not constructed to withstand great fluctuations in pressure, and thin walls were used, but it is deemed inadvisable to submit it even to minor pressures, as thus there would be danger of leakage of air through any possible small opening. Furthermore, as the carbon dioxide and water-vapor are absorbed out of the air-current, there is a constant decrease in volume, which is ordinarily compensated by the admission of oxygen. It would be very difficult to adjust the admission of oxygen so as to exactly compensate for the contraction in volume caused by the absorption of water-vapor and carbon dioxide. Consequently it is necessary to adjust some portion of the circulating air-current so that there may be a contraction and expansion in the volume without producing a pressure on the system. This was done in a manner similar to that described in the earlier apparatus, but on a much simpler plan.

To the air-pipe just before it entered the calorimeter was attached a copper can with a rubber diaphragm top. This diaphragm, which is, as a matter of fact, a ladies' pure rubber bathing-cap, allows for an expansion or contraction of air in the system of 2 to 3 liters. The apparatus shown in position is to be seen in fig. 25, in which the tin can I is covered with the rubber diaphragm J. If there is any change in volume, therefore, the rubber diaphragm rises or falls with it and under ordinary conditions of an experiment this arrangement results in a pressure in the chamber approximately that of the atmosphere. It was found, however, that even the slight resistance of the piping from the tension-equalizer to the chamber, a pipe some 26 millimeters in diameter and 60 centimeters long, was sufficient to cause a slightly diminished pressure inside the calorimeter, inasmuch as the air was sucked out by the blower with a little greater speed than it was forced in by the pressure at the diaphragm. Accordingly the apparatus has been modified so that at present the tension-equalizer is attached directly to the wall of the calorimeter independent of the air-pipe.

In most of the experiments made thus far it has been our custom to conduct the supply of fresh oxygen through pet-cock K on the side of the tension-equalizer. This is shown more in detail in fig. 32, in which, also, is shown the interior construction of the can. Owing to the fact that the air inside of this can is much dryer than the room air, we have followed the custom with the earlier apparatus of placing a vessel containing sulphuric acid inside the tension-equalizer, so that any moisture absorbed by the dry air inside the diaphragm may be taken up by the acid and not be carried into the chamber. The air passing through the pipe to the calorimeter is, it must be remembered, absolutely dry and hence there are the best conditions for the passage of moisture from the outside air through the diaphragm to this dry air. Attaching the tension-equalizer directly to the calorimeter obviates the necessity for this drying process and hence the sulphuric-acid vessel has been discarded.

The valve H is used to cut off the tension-equalizer completely from the rest of the system at the exact moment of the end of the experimental period. After the motor has been stopped and the slight amount of air partly compressed in the blower has leaked back into the system, and the whole system is momentarily at equal tension, a process occupying some 3 or 4 seconds, the gate-valve H is closed. Oxygen is then admitted from the pet-cock K until there is a definite volume in J as measured by the height to which the diaphragm can rise or a second pet-cock is connected to the can I and a delicate petroleum manometer attached in such a manner that the diaphragm can be filled to exactly the same tension each time. Under these conditions, therefore, the apparent volume of air in the system, exclusive of the tension-equalizer, is always the same, since it is confined by the rigid walls of the calorimeter and the piping. Furthermore, the apparent volume of air in the tension-equalizer is arbitrarily adjusted to be the same amount at the end of each period by closing the valve and introducing oxygen until the tension is the same.

BAROMETER.

Recognizing the importance of measuring very accurately the barometric pressure, or at least its fluctuations, we have installed an accurate barometer of the Fortin type, made by Henry J. Green. This is attached to the inner wall of the calorimeter laboratory, and since the calorimeter laboratory is held at a constant temperature, temperature corrections are unnecessary, for we have here to deal not so much with the accurate measurement of the actual pressure as with the accurate measurement of differences in pressure. For convenience in reading, the ivory needle at the base of the instrument and the meniscus are well illuminated with electric lamps behind a white screen, and a small lamp illuminates the vernier. The barometer can be read to 0.05 millimeter.

ANALYSIS OF RESIDUAL AIR.

The carbon-dioxide production, water-vapor elimination, and oxygen absorption of the subject during 1 or 2 hour periods are recorded in a general way by the amounts of carbon dioxide and water-vapor absorbed by the purifying vessels and the loss of weight of the oxygen cylinder; but, as a matter of fact, there may be considerable fluctuations in the amounts of carbon dioxide and water-vapor and particularly oxygen in the large volume of residual air inside the chamber. With carbon dioxide and water-vapor this is not as noticeable as with oxygen, for in the 1,300 liters of air in the chamber there are some 250 liters of oxygen, and slight changes in the composition of this air indicate considerable changes in the amount of oxygen. Great changes may also take place in the amounts of carbon dioxide and water-vapor under certain conditions. In some experiments, particularly where there are variations in muscular activity from period to period, there may be a considerable amount of carbon dioxide in the residual air and during the next period, when the muscular activity is decreased, for example, the percentage composition of the air may vary so much as to indicate a distinct fall in the amount of carbon dioxide present. Under ordinary conditions of ventilation during rest experiments the quantity of carbon dioxide present in the residual air is not far from 8 to 10 grams. There are usually present in the air not far from 6 to 9 grams of water-vapor, and hence this residual amount can undergo considerable fluctuations. When it is considered that an attempt is made to measure the total amount of carbon dioxide expired in one hour to the fraction of a gram, it is obvious that fluctuations in the composition of residual air must be taken into consideration.

It is extremely difficult to get a fair sample of air from the chamber. The air entering the chamber is free from water-vapor and carbon dioxide. In the immediate vicinity of the entering air-tube there is air which has a much lower percentage of carbon dioxide and water-vapor than the average, and on the other hand close to the nose and mouth of the subject there is air of a much higher percentage of carbon dioxide and water-vapor than the average. It has been assumed that the composition of the air leaving the chamber represents the average composition of the air in the chamber. This assumption is only in part true, but in rest experiments the changes in the composition of the residual air are so slow and so small that this assumption is safe for all practical purposes.

Another difficulty presents itself in the matter of determining the amount of carbon dioxide and water-vapor; that is, to make a satisfactory analysis of air without withdrawing too great a volume from the chamber. The difficulty in analysis is almost wholly confined to the determination of water-vapor, for while there are a large number of methods for determining small amounts of carbon dioxide with great accuracy, the method for determining water-vapor to be accurate calls for the use of rather large quantities of air. From preliminary experiments with a sling psychrometer it was found that its use was precluded by the space required to successfully use this instrument, the addition of an unknown amount of water to the chamber from the wet bulb, and the difficulties of reading the instrument from without the chamber. Recourse was had to the determination of moisture by the absolute method, in that a definite amount of air is caused to pass over pumice-stone saturated with sulphuric acid. It is of interest here to record that at the moment of writing a series of experiments are in progress in which an attempt is being made to use a hair hygrometer for this purpose.

The method of determining the water-vapor and carbon dioxide in the residual air is extremely simple, in that a definite volume of air is caused to pass over sulphuric acid and soda-lime contained in U-tubes. In other words, a small amount of air is caused to pass through a small absorbing-system constructed of U-tubes rather than of porcelain vessels and silver-plated cans. Formerly a very elaborate apparatus was employed for aspirating the air from the chamber through U-tubes and then returning the aspirated air to the chamber. This involved the use of a suction-pump and called for a special installation for maintaining the pressure of water constant. More recently a much simpler device has been employed, in that we have taken advantage of the pressure in the ventilating air-system developed by the passage of air through the blower. After forcing a definite quantity of air through the reagents in the U-tubes, it is then conducted back to the system after having been measured in a gas-meter.

This procedure is best noted from fig. 30. The connected series of three U-tubes on the rack on the table is joined on one end by well-fitting rubber connections to the tube leading from the mercurial manometer and on the other end to the rubber tube A leading to the gas-meter. On lowering the mercury reservoir E, the mercury is drained out of the tube D and air passes through both arms of the tube and then through the three U-tubes. In the first of these it is deprived of moisture, and in the last two of carbon dioxide. The air then enters the meter, where it is measured and leaves the meter through the tube B, saturated with water-vapor at the room temperature. To remove this water-vapor the air is passed through a tower filled with pumice-stone drenched with sulphuric acid. It leaves the tower through the tube C and enters the ventilating air-pipe on its way to the calorimeter.

GAS-METER.

The gas-meter is made by the Dansk Maalerfabrik in Copenhagen, and is of the type used by Bohr in many of his investigations. It has the advantage of showing the water-level, and the volume may be read directly. The dial is graduated so as to be read within 50 cubic centimeters.

The Elster meter formerly used for this purpose was much smaller than the meter of the Dansk Maalerfabrik we are now using. The volume of water was much smaller and consequently the temperature fluctuations much more rapid. While the residual analyses for which the meter is used are of value in interpolating the results for the long experiments, and consequently errors in the meter would be more or less constant, affecting all results alike, we have nevertheless carefully calibrated the meter by means of the method of admitting oxygen from a weighed cylinder. The test showed that the meter measured 1.4 per cent too much, and consequently this correction must be applied to all measurements made with it.

CALCULATION OF RESULTS.

With an apparatus as elaborate as is the respiration calorimeter and its accessories, the calculation of results presents many difficulties, but the experience of the past few years has enabled us to lessen materially the intricacies of the calculations formerly thought necessary.

The total amount of water-vapor leaving the chamber is determined by noting the increase in weight of the first sulphuric-acid vessel in the absorber system. This vessel is weighed with a counterpoise and hence only the increment in weight is recorded. A slight correction may be necessary here, as frequently the absorber is considerably warmer at the end of the period than at the beginning and if weighed while warm there may be an error of 0.1 to 0.2 gram. If the absorbers are weighed at the same temperature at the beginning and end, this correction is avoided.

The amount of carbon dioxide absorbed from the ventilating air-current is found by noting the changes in weight of the potash-lime can and the last sulphuric-acid vessel. As shown by the weights of this latter vessel, it is very rare that sufficient water is carried over from the potash-lime to the sulphuric acid to cause a perceptible change in temperature, and no temperature corrections are necessary. It may occasionally happen that the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed is actually somewhat less than the amount of water-vapor abstracted from the reagent by the dry air-current as it passes through the can. The conditions will then be such that there will be a loss in weight of the potash-lime can and a large gain in weight of the sulphuric-acid vessel. Obviously, the algebraic sum of these amounts will give the true weight of the carbon dioxide absorbed.

The amount of oxygen admitted is approximately measured by noting the loss in weight of the oxygen cylinder. Since, however, in admitting the oxygen from the cylinder there is a simultaneous admission of a small amount of nitrogen, a correction is necessary. This correction can be computed either by the elaborate formulas described in the publication of Atwater and Benedict or by the more abbreviated method of calculation which has been used very successfully in all short experiments in this laboratory. In either case it is necessary to know the approximate percentage of nitrogen in the oxygen.

ANALYSIS OF OXYGEN.

With the modified method of computation discussed in detail on page 88 it is seen that such exceedingly exact analyses of oxygen as were formerly made are unnecessary, and further calculation is consequently very simple if we know the percentage of nitrogen to within a fraction of 1 per cent. We have used a Haldane gas-analysis apparatus for analyzing the oxygen, although the construction of the apparatus is such that this presents some little difficulty. It is necessary, for example, to accurately measure about 16 cubic centimeters of pure nitrogen, pass it into the potassium pyrogallate pipette, and then gradually absorb the oxygen in the potassium pyrogallate and measure subsequently the accumulated nitrogen. The analysis is tedious and not particularly satisfactory. Having checked the manufacturer's analysis of a number of cylinders of oxygen and invariably found them to agree with our results, we are at present using the manufacturer's guaranteed analysis. If there was a very considerable error in the gas analysis, amounting even to 1 per cent, the results during short experiments would hardly be affected.

ADVANTAGE OF A CONSTANT-TEMPERATURE ROOM AND TEMPERATURE CONTROL.

A careful inspection of the elaborate method of calculation required for use with the calorimeter formerly at Wesleyan University shows that a large proportion of it can be eliminated owing to the fact that we are here able to work in a room of constant temperature. It has been pointed out that the fluctuations in the temperature of the gas-meter affect not only the volume of the gas passing through the meter, but likewise the tension of aqueous vapor. The corrections formerly made for temperature on the barometer are now unnecessary; finally it is no longer necessary to subdivide the volume of the system into portions of air existing under different temperatures, depending upon whether they were in the upper or lower part of the laboratory. In other words, the temperature of the whole ventilating circuit and chamber, with the single exception of the air above the acid in the first sulphuric-acid absorber, may be said to be constant. During rest experiments this assumption can be made without introducing any material error, but during work experiments it is highly probable that some consideration must be given to the possibility of the development of a considerable temperature rise in the air of the potash-lime absorbers, due to the reaction between the carbon dioxide and the solid absorbent. It is thus apparent that the constant-temperature conditions maintained in the calorimeter laboratory not only facilitate calorimetric measurements, but also simplify considerably the elaborate calculations of the respiratory exchange formerly required.

VARIATIONS IN THE APPARENT VOLUME OF AIR.

In its passage through the purifiers the air is subjected to more or less pressure, and it is obvious that if these absorbers were coupled to the ventilating system under atmospheric pressure, and then air caused to pass through them, there would be compression in a portion of the purifier system. Thus there would be a contraction in the volume, and air thus compressed would subsequently be released into the open air when the absorbers were uncoupled. The method of testing the system outlined on page 100 equalizes this error, however, in that the system is tested under the same pressure used during an actual experiment, and hence between the surface of the sulphuric acid in the first porcelain vessel and the sulphuric acid in the second porcelain vessel there is a confined volume of air which at the beginning of an experimental period is under identically the same pressure as it is at the end. There is, then, no correction necessary for the rejection of air with the changes in the absorber system.

As the water-vapor is absorbed by the sulphuric acid, there is a slight increase in volume of the acid. This naturally results in the diminution of the apparent volume of air and likewise again affects the amount of oxygen admitted to produce constant apparent volume at the end of each experimental period. The amount of increase which thus takes place for each experimental period is very small. It has been found that an increase in weight of 25 grams of water-vapor results in an increase in volume of the acid of some 15 cubic centimeters. Formerly this correction was made, but it is now deemed unnecessary and unwise to introduce a refinement that is hardly justified in other parts of the apparatus. Similarly, there is theoretically at least an increase in volume of the potash-lime by reason of the absorption of the carbon dioxide. This was formerly taken into consideration, but the correction is no longer applied.

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