Read Ebook: Πελοποννησιακός Πόλεμος Τόμος τρίτος by Thucydides BCE BCE Zervos I Ioannes Translator

Font size: 10 px 15 px 20 px 25 px 30 px 35 px

Background color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Text color: BlackWhiteGrayLight GrayDark GrayDim Gray

Apply/Save settings

Ebook has 1505 lines and 62100 words, and 31 pages

Nature Powers. PAGE. Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. The Swastika. Circumambulation round images and other sacred objects. Moon-worship. Days of special importance. Eclipses. Worship of planets and stars. The milky way. The rainbow. Worship of the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes. Worship of sacred rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins. Ceremonies at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred Lakes. Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who control the weather. Methods of causing or averting rain and of checking storms. Vratas or religious vows practised only by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in which the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors 1

The Heroic Godlings.

Village deities. Local deities. Installation of deities in new settlements. Ghostly godlings. Deities responsible for crops and cattle 21

Disease Deities.

Causes of epidemic diseases and the remedies adopted to stop them. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised by the village people in connection with them. The methods for the exorcism of disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the body. The village sorcerer. Offerings of rags, coins, etc., at sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease from one person to another. Scapegoats 29

The worship of Ancestors and Saints.

Shr?ddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious sects, of saints, etc. Ghosts. Rebirth of ancestors in the same family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted by Hindus. Rural methods for the cure of barrenness 40

The Worship of the malevolent dead.

Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious dreams. Temporary abandonment of the body by the soul. Character and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul. The state of the soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The souls of persons dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts enter and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the body. Reliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. R?kshasa or the malevolent demon. Other malignant spirits. Evil spirits which go about headless. The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in childbed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of children. Beliefs in connection with bats and owls. Spirits which haunt ruins, guard buried treasure and occupy valleys 49

The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.

Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by the evil eye. Precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye Opprobrious names. Change of sex. Protection against evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens. Numbers. Lucky and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the other world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the hair. Offerings of food to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits in form. The practice of breaking earthen vessels at death. Kites connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits. Spirits which haunt trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits invoked to frighten children 60

Tree and Serpent worship.

Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions connected with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms to trees. Snake worship. Shrines of snake deities. Deified snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment of snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Guardian snakes 71

Totemism and Fetishism.

Devaks. Names derived from animals and plants. Sacred animals. Deities associated with animal worship. Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of human sacrifice. Disease-curing stones. Respect shown to corn sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough. Fire worship 78

Animal worship.

Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected with them 83

Witchcraft.

Chetaks and Chetakins. 85

General.

Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites performed for the protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring noxious animals and insects. Rites performed for ensuring sunshine and favourable weather. Rites performed for the protection of crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when boys and girls attain puberty. Vows. The black art 87

Glossary of vernacular terms, occurring in Volumes I and II i to xxxvii

FOLKLORE OF THE KONKAN.

NATURE POWERS.

The worship of minor local deities is connected with such low castes as Guravas, Bhopis, Mar?tha Kunbis, Dhangars, W?ghes, Murlis, Mah?rs and M?ngs in the District of Kolh?pur. It is believed by the Br?hmans that once an image is consecrated and worshipped, it should be worshipped uninterruptedly every day, and he who neglects to worship such an image daily incurs the sin of Brahma-hatya or Br?hman-murder. For this reason Br?hmans generally do not worship minor local deities. In former times Br?hmans who worshipped these deities were excommunicated by their caste-men. Such Puj?ris were compelled to wear a folded dhotur or waist cloth, and were forbidden to put on the gandh or sandal paste mark in straight or cross lines. They were allowed to put on the tila or circular mark of sandal paste. Another reason why Br?hmans are not the Puj?ris or worshippers of such deities is that Br?hmans cannot accept or partake of the Naivedya offering of cooked food, fowls, etc., made to them. Lower class people can partake of such offerings, and are therefore generally the worshippers or ministrants of minor local deities.

At Palshet in the Ratn?giri District, there are two gr?mdevis, viz., Jhol?i and Mh?rj?i, and the puj?ris of these deities are respectively a Gurav and a Mah?r. The puj?ris of goddesses are generally men of the lower castes. The guardian goddesses of the villages of Pule, Varavade, Nandivade, and Rila have Kunbis as their puj?ris; while the puj?ris of the goddesses Mah?lakshmi, Bhagvati, Mah?k?li, and Jog?i are generally chosen from the Gurav caste. In the Konkan the R?uls are the puj?ris of the deities Vithoba, Ravaln?th and Bhav?ni; the Gh?dis are the puj?ris of the deities S?teri and Khavaneshwar; while the deities Mah?dev and M?ruti are worshipped by puj?ris belonging to the Gurav caste. The goddesses Makhajan and Jakhm?ta at Sangameshwar in the Ratn?giri District are worshipped by puj?ris who belong to the Gurav and Bhoi castes respectively. The god Ganpati at Makhnele has for his puj?ri a W?ni. The puj?ris of the temple of Shiva at L?nje in the Ratn?giri District are W?nis. It is said that the puj?ri of Pund?rik at Pandharpur is a Kir?ta by caste.

The puj?ri of the goddess Narm?ta at Sidgad in the Th?na District is a Koli; whilst the puj?ris of K?noba, Khandoba, and Vet?l are of the lower castes. The goddesses Mah?lakshmi of Kolvan and Vajreshvari have their puj?ris chosen from the lower castes. The puj?ris of Jari-Mari, Mhasoba, Bahiroba, Cheda and other deities which are said to prevent contagious diseases, are always men of the lower castes.

The puj?ris of the guardian goddesses of the villages Petsai, Dasgaum and Niz?mpur are a Mah?r, a Kumbh?r or potter, and a Mar?tha, respectively. The puj?ri of the guardian goddesses of Chaul in the Kol?ba District belongs to the lower castes. The goddess M?ng?i has always a Mah?r as her puj?ri. Everyday the god Shiva is required to be worshipped first by a puj?ri of the Gurav caste. The puj?ri of Bahiri, a corruption of the word Bhairav, one of the manifestations of Shiva, is a man belonging to the lower castes. Similarly the puj?ris of Bhagavati, Bhav?ni, Ambika, K?lika, J?kh?i, Jhol?i, Janni, Kolh?i, Vady?j?i, Shital?devi, Chandika, etc., are persons belonging to lower castes.

It is considered by the Hindus very meritorious and holy to worship the Sun; and by Br?hmans the Sun is considered to be their chief deity. The G?yatri Mantra of the Br?hmans is a prayer to the Sun-god or the Savita Dev, and the Br?hmans offer arghya or oblations of water to the Sun thrice a day. Those who want health, wealth and prosperity propitiate the Sun-god by prayers and ceremonies. The Ratha Saptami is considered to be the principal day for special worship and festivities in honour of the Sun-god. On this day, on a low wooden stool, is drawn, in red sandal paste, a figure of the Sun in human shape seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, or by a horse with seven faces. This figure is then placed in the sun-shine, and it is then worshipped by offering it arghya or spoonfuls of water, red powder, red flowers mixed with red sandal paste, camphor, incense and fruits. Some people kneel down while offering the arghyas to the Sun. These arghyas are either three or twelve in number. Some persons make a vow not to eat anything unless they have worshipped the Sun and performed the twelve Namaskaras by falling prostrate and bowing with folded hands twelve times, and at each time repeating one of the twelve names of the Sun.

In the Ratn?giri District some people worship the Sun on the Sundays of the month of Shr?van. A ceremony held on the Rathasaptami day, i.e., the 7th day of the bright half of M?gh, is deemed a special festival in honour of the Sun-god. On that day people draw, on a small wooden stool, an image of the Sun, seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, and worship it with great reverence. Milk is then boiled on a fire made of cow-dung cakes in front of the household Tulsi plant. If the milk overflows to the east, it is believed that there will be abundance of crops, but if it flows to the west it is taken as a sign of the near approach of famine. The Sun-god is also worshipped on the following occasions, e.g., Trikal, Gajacch?ya, Ardhodaya, Mahodaya, Vyatip?t, Makar-Sankr?nt, Kark-Sankr?nt and the Solar eclipse. Though there are few temples dedicated to the Sun, the village of Parule has the honour of having one called "the temple of Adi-N?r?yan." Non-Br?hmanical classes are not seen worshipping the Sun in this district, despite the fact that the Sun is said to be the embodiment of the three principal deities of the Hindus.

The people of the Th?na District believe that the Swastika is the central point of the helmet of the Sun, and a vow called the Swastika Vrata is held in its honor. A woman who observes this vow, draws a figure of the Swastika and worships it daily during the Ch?turm?s , at the expiration of which she gives a Br?hman a golden or silver plate with the sign of the Swastika upon it. Another vow named Dhanurm?s, common to all districts in the Konkan, requires a person to complete his daily rites before sun-rise, and to offer a preparation of food called Khichadi to the Sun-god. The observer of this vow then partakes of the food, regarding it as a gift from that god. This is either done for one day or repeated for a month till the Dhanu-Sankr?nt. On the Somavati-Am?v?sya day , and the Kapil?shasthi day, the Sun is held in especial reverence. A curious story is narrated regarding the offering of Arghya to the Sun. It is said that the Sun rejoices at the birth of a Br?hman, and gives 1,000,000 cows in charity, believing that the Arghya which the Br?hman will offer later on will devour his foes, one drop of the Arghya killing 1,000 of them . The repetition of the G?yatri-mantra 108 times a day is supposed to release a Br?hman from the debt of 1,000,000 cows owed in this way to the Sun. The Yoga-Sutras of P?tanjali however prohibit a man from looking at the setting Sun, though the sin thus incurred is made amends for by the offering of Arghya to that god. It is interesting to note that women do not grind corn on the Ratha-Saptami day.

Women bow down to the Sun on the 11th, 12th, 30th or 40th day after their delivery; but Kunbi women generally worship that god on the 7th day. On this occasion some women show a churning handle to the Sun-god and offer him some grains of rice.

The Swastika is considered so holy in the Konkan that it is always drawn on the Antarpat; and at the time of the Puny?ha Wachan ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, a Swastika drawn in rice is worshipped. The principal deities of the Hindus, whenever they are invoked on special occasions, are seated on the Swastika. The people of the Ratn?giri District worship the Swastika, regarding it as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god.

The conception of Kunbi is said to have taken place by the influence of the rays of the Sun.

The Swastika is considered as an emblem of peace and prosperity, and for this reason Br?hman women draw a figure of the Swastika in front of their houses. The custom of moving round such sacred objects as the Banyan, the Pipal, the Tulsi or sweet basil plant, the Umbar, the Avala , etc., is prevalent in the district of Kolh?pur. There are no cases recorded in which women after child-birth are exposed to the Sun. But on the 12th day after her delivery, the mother puts on new bangles and new clothes; cocoanuts, betelnuts and leaves, grains of rice, plantains and grains of wheat are placed in her lap. She then comes out and bows to the Sun. Wealthy persons on this occasion perform a homa sacrifice in their houses by kindling the holy fire and feeding Br?hmans. No one in this district believes that conception is caused, or is likely to be caused, by exposure to the rays of the Sun.

The Hindu women of the Konkan walk round Pipal, Tulsi, and Umbar trees every Saturday and on the Somavati-am?v?sya day, i.e., the 15th day of the dark half of a month when it falls on Monday. Sometimes, however, women make a vow to walk round a temple or a sacred tree one-hundred thousand times; and for the fulfilment of this vow they walk round the temple or tree for about seven or eight hours every day. If they find it difficult to make up the number of rounds themselves, they ask their near relations to assist them in their undertaking.

The Moon is worshipped by the Hindus on the 2nd of the bright half of every month. On this day it is considered very lucky to see the moon, and many people, particularly the lower classes, pull out threads from the clothes they wear, and offer them to the moon, saying "O! God, accept these old clothes of ours and be pleased to give us new ones in their stead." Some people worship the moon on the Sankasti Chaturthi, 4th day of the dark half of every month; and such people will not eat anything until they have seen and worshipped the moon on that day. The moon is not worshipped on the Ganesh Chaturthi day that is, the 4th of the bright half of the month of Bh?drapad, as it is considered very unlucky to see the moon on that night. It is firmly believed that any one who sees the moon on the Ganesh Chaturthi day even by accident will be falsely accused of theft or some other crime. In order to avoid this, people who have accidently seen the moon, throw stones at the houses of their neighbours, and if the neighbours abuse them in return, the mischief makers consider themselves freed by the abuse from the sin of having looked at the moon on a forbidden night.

The spots on the surface of the moon are believed by some to be the rath or chariot of the god. Others think that they are lunar mountains; but many believe that the spots are the visible signs of the stain on the character of the moon-god due to his having outraged the modesty of the wife of his guru, the god Brahaspati or Jupiter. In the Pur?ns it is stated that on one occasion, a dispute arose between the moon and Brahaspati or Jupiter about the wife of Brahaspati, each of them claiming to be the cause of her conception. Subsequently a son was born who was named Budha . Brahaspati's wife, on being asked who was the father of the child, named the moon. Thereupon Brahaspati cursed the moon for his adultery. The spots on the surface of the moon are said to be the effect of this curse.

The moon-god is believed to distribute nectar through his rays, and therefore this deity is said to have the power of removing diseases and restoring human beings to health. The moon is the king of herbs, and all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence of the moon. Sometimes people place at night, figs, plantains, sugarcane and other eatables in the moon-light and eat them early in the morning; and it is said that those who do so improve in health. The practice of drinking the moon's rays does not prevail in the Kolh?pur district. But people occasionally dine in the moon light.

On a full moon day people perform the special worship of their chosen deity. On the full moon of the month of K?rtika temples are illuminated, and on the full moon day of M?gha, raw corn such as wheat, b?jri, etc., is cooked and offered to the household and other deities. On this day are also performed the special rites and ceremonies that are required in connection with the Kula-devat?s or family gods or goddesses. On the full moon day of F?lguna the Holi fire is kindled and worshipped. In certain families the full moon of Chaitra is considered auspicious for making offerings to family deities. On the full moon day of Shr?van is observed the feast of Cocoanut day, and on this day Br?hmans put on new sacred threads. The full moon is considered by the Sany?sis or ascetics an auspicious day for shaving their heads.

On the new moon day the Pitras or Manes are worshipped. Lighted lamps are worshipped on the new moon day, of Ash?dha. In the Kolh?pur State this is called Tadali new moon day, and in the Konkan it is called Divali new moon day. On the new moon day of Ashvin, Lakshmi the goddess of wealth is worshipped. All special ceremonies for the propitiation of the Bhutas or evil spirits are usually performed on the new moon day. The Dwitiya or 2nd day of every month is considered sacred to the moon, and on this day the moon is worshipped; while the Chaturthi is considered sacred to the god Ganapati, and on the Chaturthi of Bh?drapada a special festival is held in honour of the god Ganpati.

On the 15th day of the bright half of the month of Ashvin people put milk in the rays of the moon for some time, and then, after offering it to the moon, they drink it. Drinking milk in this way is called drinking the rays of the moon. On the Sankr?nt Chaturthi day and on that Chaturthi which immediately follows the Dasara holiday, people draw an image of the moon and worship it. In the Ratn?giri District several conflicting theories are held regarding the spots on the surface of the moon. Some believe that the spot observed on the moon is a tamarind tree in which that god has stationed himself; others hold that the spot is the reflection of a deer which is yoked to the chariot of the moon ; while many more believe that it has been occasioned by the hoof of the horse of King Nala. Some say that the spot on the surface of the moon represents a Pipal tree and a cow fastened to the roots of the tree; others on the authority of Hindu mythology suppose that God created Madan from the essence taken from the body of the moon and hence the moon-god has spots on his body. In the Mah?bh?rat it is stated that on the surface of the moon is reflected the island of Sudarshan on this earth, together with some trees and a great hare, the bright part being nothing but water. The spot on the surface of the moon is considered by some a deer which the god has taken on his lap. Some believe that Yashoda, the mother of Krishna, after waving an earthen dish round the face of Krishna, threw it at the sky. It struck the moon and thereby the spots on the surface of the moon were caused. Nectar is supposed to have been derived from the rays of the moon; and in some sacred books it is stated that the Chakora bird drinks the rays of the moon.

The people of the Th?na District hold similar notions regarding the spots on the surface of the moon. It has been said by some that the portion in question represents mud, while others say that the moon has been disfigured owing to a curse from a sage. Some people say that the spots are due to the moon being cursed by his preceptor Brahaspati with whose wife the moon-god had connection. Being unable to bear the pain of the spots, the moon, it is said, propitiated his preceptor, who directed him to bathe in the Bhima river to alleviate the agony. Accordingly the pain was assuaged, and the part of the river where the Moon-god bathed thus came to be called Chandra bh?ga. Some persons suggest that the spots are a Pipal tree with two deer feeding upon it from two sides. Others hold that the spots on the surface of the moon are due to its having been kicked by a deer which, when pursued by a hunter, was refused shelter. The people of the Th?na District believe that the rays of the moon influence conception.

In the Kol?ba District, to sit in an open place on a moon-light night, is regarded as drinking the rays of the moon. The elongated part of the orb of the moon pointing towards the north or the south is supposed to forebode scarcity or abundance, respectively.

It is a common belief that the moon should not be seen on the Ganesh Chaturthi day, i.e., the 4th day of the bright half of Bh?drapad.

Looking at the moon continuously for a short time on every moon-light night is said to keep one's sight in good order.

If the Am?v?sya falls on Monday, Br?hman women of the Th?na District walk round a Tulsi plant or a Pipal tree and make a vow to a Br?hman.

In the Kol?ba District a special ceremony is held in honour of minor goddesses on the 8th day of a month. The following things are avoided one on each of the fifteen tithis respectively:--

Kohala , dorli , salt, sesamum, sour things, oil, ?vale , cocoanuts, bhopala , padval , p?vte , masur , brinjal, honey, gambling.

The people observe a fast on the 13th and the 14th day of the dark half of every month. On the 15th day of the bright half of Chaitra, a fair is held in honour of the guardian deity of a village, and hens, goats, etc., are offered as a sacrifice.

The following are days of special importance.

Share on: WhatsApp @Hash Facebook Tweet