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Runoilijat tahtovat joko hy?dytt?? tai huvittaa taikka samalla lausua ihmisel?m?lle mieluisia ja hy?dyllisi? opetuksia. Jos mit? tahansa lausut opettavaista, ollos lyhyt, jotta oppivaiset mielet nopeasti k?sitt?v?t ja uskollisesti s?ilytt?v?t sanojasi. Kaikki valuu liian t?ydest? syd?mest? pois ylellisen?. Olkoot huvin vuoksi keksityt seikat hyvinkin todenn?k?isi?, jott'ei n?ytelm? vaatisi uskottavaksi mit? tahansa, eik? esim. Lamian vatsasta vedett?isi el?v?? lasta, jonka se on sy?nyt. Kansan vanhimmat hylk??v?t hy?dytt?m?t runot ja nuoret ritarit kulkevat ylpe?sti j?ykkien runoelmain ohi. Se voitti kaikkien hyv?ksymisen, joka yhdisti hy?dyn ja huvin samalla kertaa miellytt?m?ll? ja opettamalla lukijaa. Sellainen kirja tuottaa rahaa Sosiuksille, se kulkee meren poikki ja hankkii kirjoittajalleen tutun nimen pitk?ksi ajaksi. On kuitenkin virheit?, joita tahdomme anteeksi antaa: sill? eip? kieli aina anna sit? ??nt?, jota vaatii k?si ja mieli, ja se soinnuttaa usein matalan, kun tahtoo korkeata, eik? jousi aina osaa siihen, jota uhkaa. Mutta kun runossa on enemm?n loistokohtia, eiv?t minua loukkaa harvat pilkut, jotka joko huolimattomuus on sirottanut tai ihmisluonto liian v?h?n tiennyt karttaa. Mit? on sen takia teht?v?? Niinkuin puhtaaksikirjoittaja ei saa anteeksi, jos h?n muistutuksista huolimatta aina tekee saman virheen, ja kuten sit? kitaransoittajaa pilkataan, joka alati erehtyy samalla kielell?, samoin minusta se, joka paljon hairahtuu, muuttuu Choeriluksen kaltaiseksi, jota nauraen ihailen, h?nen ollessaan kahdesti tai kolmasti hyv?, samoin kuin paheksun, kun kunnon Homerus nukahtaa. Mutta pitk?n ty?n tekij?ll? on oikeus vaipua uneen. Kuten maalaus, on runoelma: enemm?n sinua vieh?tt?? jokin maalaus, jos seisot l?hemp?n?, ja enemm?n taasen toinen, jos seisot edemp?n?. Toinen vaatii h?m?ryytt?; toinen mielii tulla katsotuksi p?iv?nvalossa, se kuin ei pelk?? arvostelijan ter?v?? ?ly?. Toinen vieh?tt?? kerran, toinen kymmenestikin katsottuna on vieh?tt?v?.

Vaikka is?si neuvo muodostaa sinua, veljeksist? vanhinta, oikean tuntemiseen ja jo itsest?si sen oivallat, niin noudata tarkkamuistisesti t?t? lauselmaa, ett? oikeudella my?nnet??n moniaissa asioissa se, mik? on vain keskinkertaista ja siedett?v?? -- keskinkertainen lainoppinut ja asianajaja ei saavuta kaunopuheisen Messallan taitoa eik? tied? niin paljon kuin Aulus Cascellius, kuitenkin h?n on arvossa --, mutta eiv?t jumalat, eiv?t ihmiset, eiv?tk? myyj?in pylv??t my?nn? keskinkertaisten runoilijain olemassa-oloa. Kuten hauskassa ateriassa ep?sointuisa yhteissoitto, paksu voide ja unikukan siemenet yhdess? sardilaisen hunajan kanssa loukkaavat meit?, koska ateriaa olisi voitu jatkaa ilman niit?, samoin runo, joka on luotu ja keksitty huvittamiseksi, muuttuu ala-arvoiseksi, jos se v?h?sen poikkeaa mallikelpoisesta. Se, joka ei osaa harjoittaa leikki?, pysyy poissa harjoitusvehkeist? kent?ll? ja on tyynesti paikallaan, tottumatonna pallon, diskuksen ja leikkipy?r?n k?ytt?miseen, jott'eiv?t taajat katsojarivit rankaisematta kohota nauruaan: se, joka ei osaa s?keit? sepitt??, uskaltaa sen kuitenkin tehd?. Miks'ei? onpa h?n vapaa ja ylh?issukuinen sek? lis?ksi omistaa rahassa ritarin p??oman, vapaana kaikesta tahrasta.

Eth?n lausu tai toimita mit??n vastoin luonnollista kyky?si: sellainen arvostelutaitosi sek? ?lysi on; jos kuitenkin jotain kerran kirjoitat, niin tulkoon se ensiksi Maecius arvostelijan, is?si ynn? minun kuuluville ja olkoon se pid?tetty yhdeks?tt? vuotta lehtien ollessa poispantuina: on mahdollista h?vitt??, mit? ei ole julkaissut, mutta kerran julki saatettu sana ei tule takaisin. Orpheus, jumalain pyh? tulkki, vieroitti metsiss? el?v?t ihmiset murhista ja raa'asta elantotavasta, ja t?m?n johdosta sanottiin h?nen lepytt?v?n raivoisia tiikereit? ja leijonia. Amphionin, Theban kaupungin perustajan, sanottiin lyyransa soinnulla liikuttavan kallioita ja sen suloisella s?velell? johtavan ne, minne tahtoi. T?m? oli ennen muinoin oikea viisaus, joka opetti erottamaan valtion omaisuudet yksityisist? ja uskonnolliset asiat maallisista, opetti est?m??n laitonta yhdysel?m?? ja antamaan avioille oikeuksia sek? rakentamaan kaupunkeja ja piirt?m??n lakeja puutauluihin. Siten tuli kunnia ja kuulu nimi pyhille runoniekoille ja runoille. N?itten j?lkeen mainio Homerus ja Tyrtaeus s?keill??n kiihdyttiv?t miesten mieli? Marsin sotiin; runoissa ennustukset lausuttiin ja el?m?ntie osoitettiin, kuningasten suosiota tavoitettiin runosoinnuilla ja keksittiin n?ytelm? pitkien vaivojen p??t?kseksi: ?lk??n siis lyyrantaitoinen runotar tai kitaransoittaja Apollo olko sinulle vastenmielinen. -- Tuleeko runo kiitett?v? luonnon ansiosta vai taiteellisen harjoituksen kautta, on kysytty. En puolestani n?e, mit? harjoitus ilman rikasta runosuonta tai mit? harjaantumaton nero hy?dytt??; siten toinen seikka vaatii toisen apua ja yhtyy siihen yst?v?llisesti. Se nuorukainen, joka tahtoo juoksukilpailussa joutua ensinn? toivottuun maalipylv??seen, on saanut paljon k?rsi? ja tehd? ty?t?, on tuntenut l?mp?? ja vilua sek? pid?ttynyt rakkaudesta ja viininjuonnista; se huilunsoittaja, joka soittaa Pythil?isiss? juhlaleikeiss?, on ensiksi saanut oppia ja pel?t? opettajaa. Nyt on tarpeeksi sanoa: 'min? laadin ihmeellisi? runoja; hitto viek??n viimeisen: minusta on h?pe? j??d? j?lkeen ja tunnustaa tiet?m?tt?myyteni siit?, mit? en tosiaan ole oppinut'. -- Niinkuin ilmoittaja kokoo kansaa tavaroita ostamaan, niin runoilija, joka on rikas maista ja rikas korkoa vastaan annetuista rahoista, k?skee imartelijain saapua hy?tym??n. Jos h?n tosiaan voi oikealla tavalla eteen asettaa jotakin herkullista sek? menn? takaukseen ep?luotettavasta k?yh?st? ja vapauttaa synkkiin riitoihin joutuneen, ihmettelen, jos h?n osaa onnellisuudessaan erottaa valheellisen yst?v?n oikeasta. Jos jotakin annat jollekulle tai tahdot antaa, niin ?l? johda h?nt? t?ynn? iloa sepitt?miesi runojen luo: h?n, n?et, huutaapi: 'kauniisti, hyv?sti, oivasti', h?n kalpenee niitten johdosta, vuodattaa my?s yst?v?llisist? silmist??n kyynelen, hypp?? sek? polkee maata jalallaan. Kuten ne, jotka maksua vastaan itkev?t hautajaisissa, puhuvat ja toimivat melkein enemm?n kuin ne, jotka syd?mest??n surevat, niin teeskentelij? tulee enemm?n liikutetuksi kuin avomielinen kiitt?j?. Sanotaan kuningasten useilla pikareilla pakoittavan ja kiusaavan juomingeissa sit?, josta tahtovat tiet??, onko h?n heid?n yst?vyytens? arvoinen: jos runoja valmistat, ?lk??t sinua pett?k? ne, jotka ketunnahan alla piilev?t. Jos jotain luit Quintiliukselle, niin h?n sanoi: 'korjaa, hyv? yst?v?, t?t? ja t?t?'. Jos kielsit voivasi tehd? paremmin turhaan koetettuasi kaksi tai kolme kertaa, k?ski h?n pyyhk?ist? pois tai kokonaan uudestaan sepitt?? nuo huonosti muovaillut s?keet. Jos taasen mieluummin tahdoit puolustaa virhett? kuin korjata sit?, ei h?n en??n kuluttanut yht??n sanaa eik? turhaa vaivaa est??kseen sinua rakastamasta itse?si ja ty?t?si yksin ilman kilpailijaa. Viisas, kunnon mies moittii taidottomia s?keit?, huomauttaa j?ykki?, piirt?? muodottomien viereen mustan poikkiviivan, poistaa liiallisia koristuksia, pakoittaa valaisemaan liian ep?selvi? kohtia, tuomitsee kaksimielist? sanaa, merkitsee muutettavat paikat: h?np? tulee Aristarchuksen kaltaiseksi; h?n ei sano: 'miksi loukkaisin yst?v??ni pikkuseikoissa'? N?m? pikkuseikat johtavat sen vakaviin onnettomuuksiin, jota kerran on pilkattu ja huonosti otettu vastaan. -- Niinkuin sit? pel?t??n, jota paha tartunta tai keltatauti vaivaa tai pyh? raivo ja Dianan viha, niin viisaat ihmiset pelk??v?t ja varovat koskettaa mielet?nt? runoilijaa; vain varomattomat lapset h?nt? ajavat takaa ja seuraavat. Jos h?n nyt sill? v?lin, kuin h?n mahtipontisena ty?nt?? ulos s?keens? ja harhailee ymp?ri niinkuin rastaita tarkkaava linnustaja, on pudonnut kuoppaan tai kaivokseen, niin tuskin kukaan h?net huolii vet?? yl?s, vaikka h?n huutaa: 'tulkaa apuun, kuulkaa, kansalaiset!' Jos joku huolii tuoda apua ja laskea alas k?yden, niin sanon: 'ken tiet??, eik? h?n ehdoin tahdoin ole sinne heitt?ytynyt eik? tahdo tulla pelastetuksi'? ja kerron niin sicilialaisen runoniekan kuolemasta. Kun Empedocles halusi tulla kuolemattomaksi jumalaksi, niin h?n kylm?verisen? hypp?si kuumaan Aetnaan. Olkoon runoniekoilla oikeus ja lupa kuolla. Se, joka pelastaa jonkun vasten h?nen omaa tahtoaan, menettelee kuten murhaaja. Eik? tuo sit? tee kerran eik? pois vedettyn? jo muutu j?rkev?ksi ihmiseksi eik? luovu haluamasta ikuistuttavaa kuolemaa. Eip? ole kyllin selv??, mist? syyst? h?n tekaisee s?keit?; onko h?n saastuttanut is?ns? tuhkaa vai onko h?n jumalatonna koskettanut kauheaa ukkosenpaikkaa, -- joka tapauksessa h?n raivoo; ja samoin kuin karhu, joka on voinut murtaa h?kkins? est?v?t ristikot, niin raju runonlausuja karkoittaa niin hyvin oppimattomat kuin oppineet; johonka h?n kerran on tarttunut, siit? h?n pit?? kiinni ja tappaa lukemalla kuten verimato, joka ei j?t? ihoa, ennenkuin se on t?ynn?ns? verta.

Selitykset:

C. Julius Caesar suunnitteli laajoja satamat?it? Tiberin suulla Ostiassa, pomptinilaissoiden kuivattamista sek? Tiberin uoman perkaamista, mitk? tuumat keisari Augustus osaksi toteutti.

Colchilainen oli tunnettu raakuudestaan, Assyrilainen hekumallisuudestaan, Thebalaisia pidettiin tylyin? ja yksinkertaisina, Argolaisia taasen rohkeina ja ylimielisin?.

Kykliset runoilijat k?sitteliv?t Trojan sodan satupiiriin kuuluvia aiheita.

Homeroksen Odysseian alku.

N?yt?nn?n alkaessa esirippu laskettiin lattian alle sek? vedettiin j?lleen yl?s sen loputtua.

Satyrin?ytelm? liitettiin kreikkalaisen draaman kukoistusaikana traagilliseen trilogiaan nelj?nten?, jotta katsojat hilpe?mm?n kappaleen kautta j?lleen p??sisiv?t tasapainoon surun?ytelm?in kauhujen j?lkeen. Siin? samat henkil?t esiintyiv?t kuin edell?k?yviss? n?ytelmiss?, mutta aivan toisessa ymp?rist?ss?.

Kuusijalkaista jambis?ett? nimitettiin trimetriksi, koska runojalat laskettiin kaksitellen. Vanhemmat runoilijat eiv?t rajoittaneet spondeon k?ytt?mist? ensim?iseen, kolmanteen ja viidenteen jalkaan sellaisessa s?keess?, kuten esim. Horatius vaatii.

Sardiniasta tuotua hunajaa pidettiin huonomakuisena.

Tyrtaeus innostutti Spartalaisia lauluillaan toisen messenel?issodan aikana.

Polyhymnia.

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AREQUIPA, a coast department of southern Peru, bounded N. by the departments of Ayacucho and Cuzco, E. by Puno and Moquegua, S. and W. by Moquegua and the Pacific. It is divided into seven provinces. Area, 21,947 sq. m.; pop. 229,007. It is traversed by an important railway line from Mollendo to Puno, on Lake Titicaca, 325 m. long, with extensions to Santa Rosa, Peru and La Paz, Bolivia. The highest point reached by this line is 14,660 ft. The department includes an arid, sand-covered region on the coast traversed by deep gorges formed by river courses, and a partly barren, mountainous region inland composed of the high Cordillera and its spurs toward the coast, between which are numerous highly fertile valleys watered by streams from the snow-clad peaks. These produce cotton, rice, sugar-cane, wheat, coffee, Indian corn, barley, potatoes and fruit. The mountainous region is rich in minerals, and there is a valuable deposit of borax near the capital, Arequipa.

AREQUIPA, a city of southern Peru, capital of the department of the same name, about 90 m. N.E. by N. of its seaport Mollendo , and near the south-west foot of the volcano Misti which rises to a height of 19,029 ft. above sea-level. The population was estimated at 35,000 in 1896. The city is provided with a tram line, and is connected with the coast at Mollendo by a railway 107 m. long, and with Puno, on Lake Titicaca, by an extension of the same line 218 m. long. The city occupies a green, fertile valley of the Rio Chile, 7753 ft. above the sea, surrounded by an arid, barren desert. It is built on the usual rectangular plan and the streets are wide and well paved. The edifices in general are low, and are massively built with thick walls and domed ceilings to resist earthquakes, and lessen the danger from falling masonry. The material used is a soft, porous magnesian limestone, which is well adapted to the purpose in view. Arequipa is the seat of a bishopric created in 1609-1612, and possesses a comparatively modern cathedral, its predecessor having been destroyed by fire in 1849. It has several large churches, and formerly possessed five monasteries and three nunneries, which have been closed and their edifices devoted to educational and other public purposes. The religious element has always been a dominating factor in the life of the city. A university, founded in 1825, three colleges, one of them dating from colonial times, a medical school, and a public library, founded in 1821, are distinguishing features of the city, which has always taken high rank in Peru for its learning and liberalism, as well as for its political restlessness. The city's water-supply is derived from the Chile river and is considered dangerous to new arrivals because of the quantity of saline and organic matter contained. The climate is temperate and healthy, and the fertile valley surrounding the city produces an abundance of cereals, fruits and vegetables common to both hot and temperate regions. Pears and strawberries grow side by side with oranges and granadillas, and are noted for their size and flavour. The trade of the city is principally in Bolivian products--mineral ores, alpaca wool, &c.--but it also receives and exports the products of the neighbouring Peruvian provinces, and the output of the borax deposits in the neighbourhood. Arequipa was founded by Pizarro in 1540, and has been the scene of many events of importance in the history of Peru. It was greatly damaged in the earthquakes of 1582, 1609, 1784 and 1868, particularly in the last. It was captured by the Chileans in 1883, near the close of the war between Chile and Peru.

ARES, in ancient Greek mythology, the god of war, or rather of battle, son of Zeus and Hera. As contrasted with Athena, who added to her other attributes that of being the goddess of well-conducted military operations, he personifies brute strength and the wild rage of conflict. His delight is in war and bloodshed; he loves fighting for fighting's sake, and takes the side of the one or the other combatant indifferently, regardless of the justice of the cause. His quarrelsomeness was regarded as inherited from his mother, and it may have been only as an illustration of the perpetual strife between Zeus and Hera that Ares was accounted their son. According to a later tradition, he was the son of Hera alone, who became pregnant by touching a certain flower . All the gods, even Zeus, hate him, but his bitterest enemy is Athena, who fells him to the ground with a huge stone. Splendidly armed, he goes to battle, sometimes on foot, sometimes in the war chariot made ready by his sons Deimos and Phobos by whom he is usually accompanied. In his train also are found Enyo, the goddess of war who delights in bloodshed and the destruction of cities; his sister, Eris, goddess of fighting and strife; and the Keres, goddesses of death, whose function it is especially to roam the battle-field, carrying off the dead to Hades. In later accounts Ares' character is somewhat toned down; thus, in the "Homeric" hymn to Ares he is addressed as the assistant of Themis , the enemy of tyrants, and leader of the just. It is to be noted, however, that in this little poem he is to some extent confounded with the planet named after him .

The primitive character of Ares has been much discussed. He is a god of storms; a god of light or a solar god; a chthonian god, one of the deities of the subterranean world, who could bring prosperity as well as ruin upon men, although in time his destructive qualities obscured the others. In this last aspect he was one of the chief gods of the Thracians, amongst whom his home was placed even in the time of Homer. In Scythia an old iron sword served as the symbol of the god, to which yearly sacrifices of cattle and horses were made, and in earlier times human victims, selected from prisoners of war, were offered. Thus Ares developed into the god of war, in which character he made his way into Greece. This theory may have been nothing more than an instance of the Greek tendency to assign a northern or "hyperborean" home to deities in whose character something analogous to the stormy elements of nature was found. But it appears that the Thracians and Scythians in historical times worshipped chiefly a war god, and that certain Thracian settlements, formed in Greece in prehistoric times, left behind them traces of the worship of a god whom the Greeks called Ares. The story of his imprisonment for thirteen months by the Alo?dae points to the conquest of this chthonian destroyer of the fields by the arts of peace, especially agriculture, of which the grain-fed sons of Aloeus are the personification.

In Homer Ares is the lover of Aphrodite, the wife of Hephaestus, who catches them together in a net and holds them up to the ridicule of the gods. In what appears to be a very early development of her character, Aphrodite also was a war goddess, known under the name of Areia; and in Thebes, the most important seat of the worship of Ares, she is his wife, and bears him Eros and Anteros, Deimos and Phobos, and Harmonia, wife of Cadmus, the founder of the city . In the legend of Cadmus and his family Ares plays a prominent part. His worship was not so widely spread over Greece as that of other gods, although he was honoured here and there with festivals and sacrifices. Thus, at Sparta, under the name of Theritas, he was offered young dogs and even human beings. The Dioscuri were said to have brought his image from Colchis to Laconia, where it was set up in an old sanctuary on the road from Sparta to Therapnae. At Athens, he had a temple at the foot of the Areopagus, with a statue by Alcamenes. It was here, according to the legend, that he was tried and acquitted by a council of the gods for the murder of Halirrhothius, who had violated Alcippe, the daughter of Ares by Agraulos. The figure of Ares appears in various stories of ancient mythology. Thus, he engages in combat with Heracles on two occasions to avenge the death of his son Cycnus; once Zeus separates the combatants by a flash of lightning, but in the second encounter he is severely wounded by his adversary, who has the active support of Athena; maddened by jealousy, he changes himself into the boar which slew Adonis, the favourite of Aphrodite; and stirs up the war between the Lapithae and Centaurs. His attributes were the spear and the burning torch, symbolical of the devastation caused by war . The animals sacred to him were the dog and the vulture.

The worship of Ares being less general throughout Greece than that of the gods of peace, the number of statues of him is small; those of Ares-Mars, among the Romans, are more frequent. Previous to the 5th century B.C. he was represented as full-bearded, grim-featured and in full armour. From that time, apparently under the influence of Athenian sculptors, he was conceived as the ideal of a youthful warrior, and was for a time associated with Aphrodite and Eros. He then appears as a vigorous youth, beardless, with curly hair, broad head and stalwart shoulders, with helmet and chlamys. In the Villa Ludovisi statue he appears seated, in an attitude of thought; his arms are laid aside, and Eros peeps out at his feet. In the Borghese Ares he is standing, his only armour being the helmet on his head. He also appears in many other groups, with Aphrodite, in marble and on engraved gems of Roman times. But before this grouping had recommended itself to the Romans, with their legend of Mars and Rhea Silvia, the Greek Ares had again become under Macedonian influence a bearded, armed and powerful god.

An Aretas is mentioned in 1 Macc. xv. 22, but the true reading is probably Ariarathes . See NABATAEANS.

AR?TE , a ridge or sharp edge; a French term used in Switzerland to denote the sharp bayonet-like edge of a mountain , that slopes steeply upward with two precipitous sides meeting in a long ascending ridge. Hence the word has passed into common use to denote any sharp mountain edge denuded by frost action above the snowline, where the consequent angular ridges give the characteristic "house-roof structure" of these altitudes.

ARETHAS , Byzantine theological writer and scholar, archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia, was born at Patrae. He was the author of a Greek commentary on the Apocalypse, avowedly based upon that of Andrew, his predecessor in the archbishopric. In spite of its author's modest estimate, Arethas's work is by no means a slavish compilation; it contains additions from other sources, and especial care has been taken in verifying the references. His interest was not, however, confined to theological literature; he annotated the margins of his classical texts with numerous scholia , and had several MSS. copied at his own expense, amongst them the Codex Clarkianus of Plato , and the Dorvillian MS. of Euclid .

ARETHUSA, in Greek mythology, a nymph who gave her name to a spring in Elis and to another in the island of Ortygia near Syracuse. According to Pausanias , Alpheus, a mighty hunter, was enamoured of Arethusa, one of the retinue of Artemis; Arethusa fled to Ortygia, where she was changed into a spring; Alpheus, in the form of a river, made his way beneath the sea, and united his waters with those of the spring. In Ovid , Arethusa, while bathing in the Alpheus, was seen and pursued by the river god in human form; Artemis changed her into a spring, which, flowing underground, emerged at Ortygia. In the earlier form of the legend, it is Artemis, not Arethusa, who is the object of the god's affections, and escapes by smearing her face with mire, so that he fails to recognize her . The probable origin of the story is the part traditionally taken in the foundation of Syracuse by the Iamidae of Olympia, who identified the spring Arethusa with their own river Alpheus, and the nymph with Artemis Alpheiaia, who was worshipped at Ortygia. The subterranean passage of the Alpheus in the upper part of its course , and the freshness of the water of Arethusa in spite of its proximity to the sea, led to the belief that it was the outlet of the river. Further, according to Strabo , during the sacrifice of oxen at Olympia the waters of Arethusa were disturbed, and a cup thrown into the Alpheus would reappear in Ortygia. In Virgil Arethusa is addressed as a divinity of poetical inspiration, like one of the Muses, who were themselves originally nymphs of springs.

ARGAO, a town on the east coast of Cebu, Philippine Islands, 36 m. S.S.W. of the town of Cebu. Pop. 35,448. Large quantities of a superior quality of cacao are produced in the vicinity, and rice and Indian corn are other important products. A limited amount of cotton is raised and woven into cloth. The language is Cebu-Visayan. Argao was founded in 1608.

ARGAUM, a village of British India in the Akola district of the Central Provinces, 32 m. north of Akola. The village is memorable for an action which took place on the 28th of November 1803 between the British army, commanded by Major-General Wellesley , and the Mahrattas under Sindhia and the raja of Berar, in which the latter were defeated with great loss. A medal struck in England in 1851 commemorates the victory.

ARGENSON, the name, derived from an old hamlet situated in what is now the department of Indre-et-Loire, of a French family which produced some prominent statesmen, soldiers and men of letters.

ARGENTAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Orne, 27 m. N.N.W. of Alen?on on the railway from Le Mans to Caen. Pop. 5072. It is situated on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the Orne at its confluence with the Ure. The town has remains of old fortifications, among them the Tour Marguerite, and a ch?teau, now used as a law-court, dating from the 15th century. The church of St Germain has several features of architectural beauty, notably the sculptured northern portal, and the central and western towers. The church of St Martin, dating from the 15th century, has good stained glass. The handsome modern town-hall contains among other institutions the tribunal of commerce, the museum and the library. Argentan is the seat of a sub-prefect, has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Leather-working and the manufacture of stained glass are leading industries. There are quarries of limestone in the vicinity. Argentan was a viscounty from the 11th century onwards; it was often taken and pillaged. During the Religious Wars it remained attached to the Catholic party. Fran?ois Eudes de M?zeray, the historian, was born near the town, and a monument has been erected to his memory.

ARGENTEUIL, a town of northern France in the department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 5 m. N.W. of the fortifications of Paris by the railway from Paris to Mantes. Pop. 17,330. Argenteuil grew up round a monastery, which, dating from A.D. 656, was by Charlemagne changed into a nunnery; it was afterwards famous for its connexion with H?loise , and on her expulsion in 1129 was again turned into a monastery. Asparagus, figs, and wine of medium quality are grown in the district; and heavy iron goods, chemical products, clocks and plaster are among the manufactures.

ARGENTINA, or the ARGENTINE REPUBLIC , a country occupying the greater part of the southern extremity of South America. It is of wedge shape, extending from 21? 55' S. to the most southerly point of the island of Tierra del Fuego in 55? 2' 30" S., while its extremes of longitude are 53? 40' on the Brazilian frontier and 73? 17' 30" W. on the Chilean frontier. Its length from north to south is 2285 statute miles, and its greatest width about 930 m. It is the second largest political division of the continent, having an area of 1,083,596 sq. m. . It is bounded N. by Bolivia and Paraguay, E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and the Atlantic, W. by Chile, and S. by the converging lines of the Atlantic and Chile.

The Argentine part of the great La Plata plain extends from the Pilcomayo south to the Rio Negro, and from the lower terraces of the Andes eastward to the Uruguay and Atlantic. In the north the plain is known as the Gran Chaco, and includes the country between the Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte and an extensive depression immediately north of the latter river, believed to be the undisturbed bottom of the ancient Pampean sea. The northern part of the Gran Chaco is partly wooded and swampy, and as the slope eastward is very gentle and the rivers much obstructed by sand bars, floating trees and vegetation, large areas are regularly flooded during rainy seasons. South of the Bermejo the land is more elevated and drier, though large depressions covered with marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther north. The forests here are heavier. Still farther south and south-west there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with salt-pans. The general elevation of the Chaco varies from 600 to 800 ft. above sea-level. The Argentine "mesopotamia," between the Paran? and Uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region, being partly wooded, flat and swampy in the north , but higher and undulating in the south . The Misiones territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands of Brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising to a height of 1000 to 1300 ft.

Silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur in many localities. They are found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses of the hilly regions.

The principal towns, with estimated population for 1905, are as follows: Buenos Aires , Rosario , La Plata , Tucum?n , C?rdoba , Sante F? , Mendoza , Parana , Salta , Corrientes , Chivilcoy , Gualeguaych? , San Nicol?s , Concordia , San Juan , R?o Cuarto , San Luis , Barracas al Sud .

Tramway lines, which date from 1870, are to be found in all important towns. Those of Buenos Aires, Rosario and La Plata are owned by public companies. According to the census returns of 1895, the total mileage was 496 m., representing a capital expenditure of ,044,581 paper. Electric traction was first used in Buenos Aires in 1897, since when nearly all the lines of that city have been reconstructed to meet its requirements, and subways are contemplated to relieve the congested street traffic of the central districts; the companies contribute 6% of their gross receipts to the municipality, besides paying per annum per square on each single track in paved streets, 5 per thousand on the value of their property, and 33% of the cost of street repaving and renewals.

The telegraph lines of Argentina are subject to the national telegraph law of 1875, the international telegraph conventions, and special conventions with Brazil and Uruguay. In 1902 the total length of wires strung was 28,125 m.; in 1906 it had been increased to 34,080 m. The national lines extend from Buenos Aires north to La Quiaca on the Bolivian frontier , and south to Cape Virgenes , at the entrance to the Straits of Magellan. Telegraphic communication with Europe is effected by cables laid along the Uruguayan and Brazilian coasts, and by the Brazilian land lines to connect with transatlantic cables from Pernambuco. Communication with the United States is effected by land lines to Valparaiso, and thence by a cable along the west coast. The service is governed by the international telegraph regulations, but is subject to local inspection and interruption in times of political disorder.

The postal and telegraph services are administered by the national government, and are under the immediate supervision of the minister of the interior. Argentina has been a member of the Postal Union since 1878. Owing to the great distances which must be covered, and also to the defective means of communication in sparsely settled districts, the costs of the postal service in Argentina are unavoidably high in relation to the receipts.

Live stock, &c.

Crops.

The advance made in agricultural industry also is of very great importance. In 1872 the cultivated area was about 1,430,000 acres; in 1895, 12,083,000 acres; in 1901, 17,465,973 acres. In 1899 the wheat exports exceeded 50,000,000 bushels, and the Indian corn 40,000,000 bushels. The area under wheat in 1901 was 8,351,843 acres; Indian corn, 3,102,140 acres; linseed, 1,512,340 acres; alfalfa, 3,088,929 acres. The farming industry is not, however, on a satisfactory basis. No national lands in accessible districts are available for the application of a homestead law, and the farmer too often has no interest in the land beyond the growing crops, a percentage of the harvest being the rent charged by the owner of the property. This system is mischievous, since, if a few, consecutive bad seasons occur, the farmer moves to some more favoured spot; while, on the other hand, a succession of good years tends to increase rents. The principal wheat and Indian corn producing districts lie in the provinces of Santa F?, Buenos Aires, C?rdoba and Entre Rios, and the average yield of wheat throughout the country is about 12 bushels to the acre. Little attention is paid to methods of cultivation, and the farmer has no resources to help him if the cereal crops fail. In the Andean provinces of Mendoza, San Juan, Catamarca and Rioja viticulture attracts much attention, and the area in vineyards in 1901 was 109,546 acres, only 18% of which was outside the four provinces named. Wine is manufactured in large quantities, but the output is not sufficient to meet the home demand. In the provinces of Tucum?n, Salta and Jujuy the main industry is sugar growing and manufacture. In 1901 the production of sugar was 151,639 tons, of which 58,000 tons were exported. The sugar manufacture, however, is a protected and bounty-fed industry, and the 51 sugar mills in operation in 1901 are a heavy tax upon consumers and taxpayers. Other products are tobacco, olives, castor-oil, peanuts, canary-seed, barley, rye, fruit and vegetables.

Justice is administered by a supreme federal court of five judges and an attorney-general, which is also a court of appeal, four courts of appeal, with three judges each, located in Buenos Aires, La Plata, Paran? and C?rdoba, and by a number of inferior and local courts. Each province has also its own judicial system. Trial by jury is established by the constitution, but never practised. Civil and criminal courts are both corrupt and dilatory. In May 1899 the minister of justice stated in the chamber of deputies that the machinery of the courts in the country was antiquated, unwieldy and incapable of performing its duties; that 50,000 cases were then waiting decision in the minor courts, and 10,000 in the federal division; and that a reconstruction of the judiciary and the judicial system had become necessary. In June 1899 he sent his project for the reorganization of the legal procedure to congress, but no action was then taken beyond referring the bill to a committee for examination and report. The proceedings are, with but few exceptions, written, and the procedure is a survival of the antiquated Spanish system.

Under the constitution, the provinces retain all the powers not delegated to the federal government. Each province has its own constitution, which must be republican in form and in harmony with that of the nation. Each elects its governor, legislators and provincial functionaries of all classes, without the intervention of the federal government. Each has its own judicial system, and enacts laws relating to the administration of justice, the distribution and imposition of taxes, and all matters affecting the province. All the public acts and judicial decisions of one province have full legal effect and authority in all the others. In cases of armed resistance to a provincial government, the national government exercises the right to intervene by the appointment of an interventor, who becomes the executive head of the province until order is restored. The territories are under the direct control of the national government.

Total Revenue. Total Expenditure.

In 1889 the public debt of the republic amounted to about ?24,000,000, but the financial difficulties which immediately followed that year, and the continuance of excessive expenditures, forced the debt up to approximately ?128,000,000 during the next ten years. In the year 1905 the outstanding and authorized debt of the republic was as follows:--

External debt :

Consolidated Internal debt :

Total service on funded debt, 1905, ,375,067 gold, and ,914,335 paper ?6,225,669

HISTORY

The first Europeans who visited the river Plate were a party of Spanish explorers in search of a south-west passage to the East Indies. Their leader, Juan Diaz de Solis, landing incautiously in 1516 on the north coast with a few attendants to parley with a body of Charrua Indians, was suddenly attacked by them and was killed, together with a number of his followers. This untoward disaster led to the abandonment of the expedition, which forthwith returned to Spain, bringing with them the news of the discovery of a fresh-water sea. Four years later the Portuguese seaman, Ferdinand Magellan, entered the estuary in his celebrated voyage round the world, undertaken in the service of the king of Spain . Magellan, as soon as he had satisfied himself that there was no passage to the west, left the river without landing.

Cabot.

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