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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME II, SLICE IV

Aram, Eugene to Arcueil

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

ARAM, EUGENE ARCH, JOSEPH ARAMAIC LANGUAGES ARCH ARANDA, PEDRO PABLO DE BOLEA ARCHAEOLOGY ARAN ISLANDS ARCHAEOPTERYX ARANJUEZ ARCHAISM ARANY, J?NOS ARCHANGEL ARAPAHO ARCHANGEL ARARAT ARCHBALD ARARAT ARCHBISHOP ARAROBA POWDER ARCHCHANCELLOR ARAS ARCHDEACON ARASON, JON ARCHDUKE ARATOR ARCHEAN SYSTEM ARATUS ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA ARATUS ARCHELAUS ARAUCANIA ARCHELAUS ARAUCANIANS ARCHELAUS OF MILETUS ARAUCARIA ARCHENHOLZ, JOHANN WILHELM VON ARAUCO ARCHER, WILLIAM ARAVALLI HILLS ARCHERMUS ARAWAK ARCHERY ARBACES ARCHES, COURT OF ARBE ARCHESTRATUS ARBELA ARCHIAC, ?TIENNE JULES DE SAINT SIMON ARBER, EDWARD ARCHIAS, AULUS LICINIUS ARBITRAGE ARCHIDAMUS ARBITRATION ARCHIL ARBITRATION, INTERNATIONAL ARCHILOCHUS ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION ARCHIMANDRITE ARBOGAST ARCHIMEDES ARBOIS ARCHIMEDES, SCREW OF ARBOIS DE JUBAINVILLE, HENRI D' ARCHIPELAGO ARBOR DAY ARCHIPPUS ARBORETUM ARCHITECTURE ARBORICULTURE ARCHITRAVE ARBOR VITAE ARCHIVE ARBOS, FERNANDEZ ARCHIVOLT ARBOUR ARCHIVOLT ARBROATH ARCHPRIEST ARBUTHNOT, ALEXANDER ARCHYTAS ARBUTHNOT, JOHN ARCIS-SUR-AUBE ARCACHON ARCOLA ARCADE ARCOS DE LA FRONTERA ARCADELT ARCOSOLIUM ARCADIA ARCOT ARCADIUS ARCTIC ARCADIUS ARCTINUS ARCELLA ARCTURUS ARCESILAUS ARCUEIL

ARAMAIC LANGUAGES, a class of languages so called from Aram, a geographical term, which in old Semitic usage designates nearly the same districts as the Greek word Syria. Aram, however, does not include Palestine, while it comprehends Mesopotamia , a region which the Greeks frequently distinguish from Syria proper. Thus the Aramaic languages may be geographically defined as the Semitic dialects originally current in Mesopotamia and the regions extending south-west from the Euphrates to Palestine.

Arany reformed Hungarian literature. Hitherto classical and romantic successively, like other European literatures, he first gave it a national direction. He compelled the poetry of art to draw nearer to life and nature, extended its boundaries and made it more generally intelligible and popular. He wrote not for one class or school but for the whole nation. He introduced the popular element into literature, but at the same time elevated and ennobled it. What Pet?fi had done for lyrical he did for epic poetry. Yet there were great differences between them. Pet?fi was more subjective, more individual; Arany was more objective and national. As a lyric poet Pet?fi naturally gave expression to present moods and feelings; as an epic poet Arany plunged into the past. He took his standpoint on tradition. His art was essentially rooted in the character of the whole nation and its glorious history. His genius was unusually rich and versatile; his artistic conscience always alert and sober. His taste was extraordinarily developed and absolutely sure. To say nothing of his other great qualities, he is certainly the most artistic of all the Magyar poets.

ARAPAHO , a tribe of North American Indians of Algonquian stock. They formerly ranged over the central portion of the plains between the Platte and Arkansas. They were a brave, warlike, predatory tribe. With the Sioux and Cheyennes they waged unremitting warfare upon the Utes. The southern divisions of the tribe were placed on a reservation in the west of Indian Territory , while the northern are in western Wyoming. The southern section sold their reservations in 1892 and became American citizens. The Arapahos number in all some 2000.

Both Great and Little Ararat consist entirely of volcanic rocks, chiefly andesites and pyroxene andesites, with some obsidian. No crater now exists at the summit of either, but well-formed parasitic cones occur upon their flanks. There are no certain historic records of any eruption. The earthquake and fall of rock which destroyed the village of Arghuri in 1840 may have been caused by a volcanic explosion, but the evidence is unsatisfactory.

ARARAT, a municipal town of Ripon county, Victoria, Australia, 130 m. by rail W.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop. 3580. It lies at an elevation of 1028 ft. towards the western extremity of the Great Dividing range. It is the commercial centre of the north-western grain and wool-producing district and is also noted for its quartz and alluvial gold-mines. Excellent wine is made, and flour-milling, leather-working, brick and candle making and soap-boiling are the chief industries. The district also yields the best timber in great quantity. Granite, bluestone, limestone and slate abound in the neighbourhood.

Both internally and externally the drug is a powerful irritant. The general practice amongst modern dermatologists is to use only chrysophanic acid, which may be applied externally and given by the mouth in doses of about one grain in cases of psoriasis and chronic eczema. The drug is a feeble parasiticide, and has been used locally in the treatment of ringworm. It stains the skin--and linen--a deep yellow or brown, a coloration which may be removed by caustic alkali in weak solution.

ARAUCANIA, the name of a large territory of Chile, South America, S. of the Bio-bio river, belonging to the Araucanian Indians at the time of their independence of Spanish and Chilean authority. The loss of their political independence has been followed by that of the greater part of their territory, which has been divided up into the Chilean provinces of Arauco, Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin, and the Indians, much reduced in number, now live in the wooded recesses of the three provinces last named.

The Araucanians believe in a supreme being, and in many subordinate spirits, good and bad. They believe also in omens and divination, but they have neither temples nor idols, nor religious rites. Very few have become Roman Catholics. They believe in a future state, and have a confused tradition respecting a deluge, from which some persons were saved on a high mountain. They divide the year into twelve months of thirty days, and add five days by intercalation. They esteem poetry and eloquence, but can scarcely be induced to learn reading or writing.

ARAUCO, a coast province of southern Chile, bounded N., E. and S. by the provinces of Concepci?n, Bio-bio, Malleco and Cautin. Area, 2458 sq. m.; pop. 70,635. The province originally covered the once independent Indian territory of Araucania , but this was afterwards divided into four provinces. It is devoted largely to agricultural pursuits. The capital Leb? is situated on the coast about 55 m. south of Concepti?n, with which it is connected by rail.

ARAVALLI HILLS, a range of mountains in India, running for 300 m. in a north-easterly direction, through the Rajputana states and the British district of Ajmere-Merwara, situated between 24? and 27? 10' N. lat., and between 72? and 75? E. long. They consist of a series of ridges and peaks, with a breadth varying from 6 to 60 m. and an elevation of 1000 to 3000 ft., the highest point being Mount Abu, rising to 5653 ft., near the south-western extremity of the range. Geologically they belong to the primitive formation--granite, compact dark blue slate, gneiss and syenite. The dazzling white effect of their peaks is produced, not by snow, as among the Himalayas, but by enormous masses of vitreous rose-coloured quartz. On the north their drainage forms the Luni and Sakhi rivers, which fall into the Gulf of Cutch. To the south, their drainage supplies two distinct river systems, one of which debouches in comparatively small streams on the Gulf of Cambay, while the other unites to form the Chambal river, a great southern tributary of the Jumna, flowing thence via the Ganges, into the Bay of Bengal on the other side of India. The Aravalli hills are for the most part bare of cultivation, and even of jungle. Many of them are mere heaps of sand and stone; others consist of huge masses of quartz. The valleys between the ridges are generally sandy deserts, with an occasional oasis of cultivation. At long intervals, however, a fertile tract marks some great natural line of drainage, and among such valleys Ajmere city, with its lake, stands conspicuous. The hills are inhabited by a very sparse population of Mhairs, an aboriginal race. For long these people formed a difficult problem to the British government. Previously to the British occupation of India they had been accustomed to live, almost destitute of clothing, by the produce of their herds, by the chase and by plunder. But Ajmere having been ceded to the East India Company in 1818, the Mhair country was soon afterwards brought under British influence, and the predatory instincts of the people were at the same time controlled and utilized by forming them into a Merwara battalion. As the peaceful results of British rule developed, and the old feuds between the Mhairs and their Rajput neighbours died out, the Mhair battalion was transformed into a police force. The Aravalli mountaineers strongly objected to this change, and pleaded a long period of loyal usefulness to the state. They were accordingly again erected into a military battalion and brought upon the roll of the British army. Under Lord Kitchener's scheme of 1903 they were entitled the 50th Merwara Infantry. The Aravalli hills send off rocky ridges in a north-easterly direction through the states of Alwar and Jaipur, which from time to time reappear in the form of isolated hills and broken rocky elevations to near Delhi.

ARAWAK , a tribe of South American Indians of Dutch and British Guiana. The Arawaks have given their name to a linguistic stock of South America, the Arawakan, which includes many once powerful tribes. The Arawakans were once numerous, their tribes stretching from southern Brazil and Bolivia to Central America, occupying the whole of the West Indies and having settlements on the Florida seaboard. They were found by the Spaniards in Haiti and possibly in the Bahamas, but the Caribs had expelled them from most of the islands. The Arawaks proper were physically an undersized, weakly people, peaceable agriculturists, by far the most civilized of all Guiana peoples, being skilful weavers and workers in stone and gold. The chief tribes which may be called Arawakan are the Anti, Arawak, Barre, Goajiro, Guana, Manaos, Maneteneri, Maipuri, Maranho, Moxo, Pass?, Piro and Taruma.

ARBACES, according to Ctesias , one of the generals of Sardanapalus, king of Assyria and founder of the Median empire about 830 B.C. But Ctesias's whole history of the Assyrian and Median empires is absolutely fabulous; his Arbaces and his successors are not historical personages. From the inscriptions of Sargon of Assyria we know one "Arbaku Dynast of Arnashia" as one of forty-five chiefs of Median districts who paid tribute to Sargon in 713 B.C. See MEDIA.

ARBE , an island in the Adriatic Sea, forming the northernmost point of Dalmatia, Austria. Pop. 4441. Arbe is 13 m. long; its greatest breadth is 5 m. The capital, which bears the same name, is a walled town, remarkable, even among the Dalmatian cities, for its beauty. It occupies a steep ridge jutting out from the west coast. At the seaward end of this promontory is the 13th-century cathedral; behind which the belfries of four churches, at least as ancient, rise in a row along the crest of the ridge; while behind these, again, are the castle and a background of desolate hills. Many of the houses are roofless and untenanted; for, after five centuries of prosperity under Venetian or Hungarian rule, an outbreak of plague in 1456 swept away the majority of the townsfolk, and ruined the survivors. Some of the old palaces are, nevertheless, of considerable interest; one especially as the birthplace of the celebrated philosopher, Marc Antonio de Dominis. Fishing and agriculture constitute the chief resources of the islanders, whose ancient silk industry is still maintained. In 1018 the yearly tribute due to Venice was fixed at ten pounds of silk or five pounds of gold.

ARBELA , an ancient town in Adiabene, the capital in Assyrian and pre-Assyrian times of the country between the greater and lesser Zab, and seat of an important cult of Ishtar. The battle in which Alexander overthrew Darius in 331 B.C., though named in the old books after Arbela, was probably fought at Gaugamela, some 60 m. away . The modern town of Erbil or Arbil, in the vilayet of Mosul, is about 40 m. from Mosul on the road to Bagdad. The greater part of the town, which seems at one time to have been very large, is situated on an artificial mound about 150 ft. high. It became the seat of the Ayyubite sultan Saladin in 1184; was bequeathed in 1233 to the caliphs of Bagdad; was plundered by the Mongols in 1236 and in 1393 by Timur, and was taken in 1732 by the Persians under Nadir Shah. In the 14th century the Christians were almost exterminated. The population, which varies from 2000 to 6000, is chiefly composed of Kurds.

ARBITRAGE, the term applied to the system of equalizing prices in different commercial centres by buying in the cheaper market and selling in the dearer. These transactions, or their converse, are mainly confined to stocks and shares, foreign exchanges and bullion; and are for the most part carried on between London and other European capitals and largely with New York. When prices in London are affected by financial or political causes, all other markets are sooner or later influenced, as London is the banking and financial centre for the commerce of the world. It may, however, also occur that some local event of importance initiates a rise or fall in a particular market which must ultimately affect other countries. For instance, a crisis in France would immediately depress all French securities, and by exciting the fears of capitalists would stimulate transfers of funds and raise all the exchanges against France.

In ordinary times those engaged in arbitrage operate with a very small margin of profit. The great improvement in postal, telegraphic and telephonic communication enables operators to close transactions with amazing rapidity, while competition reduces the margin of profit to a minimum. Operations in American stocks and shares are carried on between London and New York on a vast scale, while transactions in African mining shares are undertaken to a considerable extent between London and Paris. The frequent fluctuations in the prices of the latter securities offer a large and fruitful field to bold operators possessed of large resources, while those who have small means often succumb in a commercial crisis. As regards foreign exchange and bullion, arbitrage operators stand on a fairly safe foundation, the fluctuations being slight and involving little or no risk, although they yield a very small margin of profit. Arbitrage operations are for these reasons resorted to frequently by one country in supplying the requirements of another. The slightest advantage in any market is put to profit, and as the margin in ordinary exchange transactions is minute, the ability to operate in this cross fashion renders business possible, which would otherwise be impracticable. To give concrete instances of the working of arbitrage the following may be cited:--

On the 21st of May 1906 the exchange on London in Vienna was telegraphed from that city 24 kronen 4 3/4 cents; London, requiring to purchase remittances, found that Antwerp had some Vienna to sell, and arranged to buy there. The transactions worked out as follows:--The direct exchange in Antwerp on London being 25.25 1/2 , and Antwerp's selling price of Vienna being 105 francs for 100 kronen, on dividing 25.25 1/2 by 105 an exchange of 24.05 1/4 was obtained or 1/2 cent cheaper than the direct exchange between Vienna and London.

Again a portion of the proceeds of the Russian loan of 1906 had to be remitted to Berlin from Paris. Having exhausted local balances in Berlin, Paris on one side, and Berlin on the other, sought to prevent gold shipments from Berlin, and thus cause stringency in that money market. On the 21st of May 1906 Berlin was therefore seeking to sell Paris in London at 81.35 marks for 100 francs, and draw on London for the proceeds at 20.50. This transaction produced a parity between the exchanges of 25.20, which left a small margin in London.

Two instances of arbitrage of stocks are the following:--On the 24th of March 1906, Japanese exchequer bonds, series 2 and 3, were bought in Tokio at 93 1/4 and were paid for by telegraphic transfer at 24-3/8 pence per yen, and were sold in London the same day at 94 for payment on arrival of bonds. It took five weeks for the transmission of the bonds to London, where they were dealt in on the fixed basis of exchange, namely 24 1/2 pence per yen. The London price works out thus:

to which must be added the loss of interest, as the firm in London paid cash on the 24th of March for the telegraphic transfer, and did not recover payment until the arrival of the bonds from Tokio five weeks later. The following is a computation of the transaction:--

This sum represents the net cost to the arbitrage house in London, and the money paid on the 28th of April left a profit of about 3/16%. The bonds being "to bearer" insurance was necessary for the safety in this, as in all similar transactions.

In the next example, however, this expense was unnecessary, the bonds being "inscribed." On the 21st of May 1906 American Steel common shares were sold for cash in New York at 41-3/16 dollars per share, and were bought in London at 42-7/32 for the account day, May 31st. These figures are explained by the fact that transactions in the United States stocks and shares are on the fixed basis of five dollars per pound sterling, while as regards payments in New York the exchange varies daily. Railway shares are generally 100 dollars each. In the London market, however, five shares of 100 dollars would be ?100 nominal. These shares, therefore, cost in London, at the purchase price of 42-7/32, ?42:4:5. The money realized in New York for five shares at 41-3/16 was 205?93 dollars. A cheque on London was bought at 4 dollars 85 1/4 cents, realizing ?42:8:9. It should be noted that the shares in these cases are generally lent by the New York correspondent, thus saving loss of interest. The resulting profit in this particular instance was 4s. 4d. for each five shares, divided between the London and New York arbitrage firms. Arbitrage operations with distant countries such as India are large and mainly profitable. Arbitrage with India consists chiefly in buying bills of exchange in London, such as India Council rupee bills amounting to about 16 millions sterling annually, and commercial bills drawn against goods exported to India. The counter-operation consists in purchasing in India, for short or long delivery, sterling bills drawn against exports to Great Britain of Indian produce, such as cotton, tea, indigo, jute and wheat. These operations greatly facilitate trade and the moving of produce from the interior of India to the seaports. Without this assistance Great Britain's enormous trade could not be carried on, and she would have to revert to the primitive system of barter. The same advantages are afforded to her vast trade with China and Japan, with the material difference that the supply of government council bills is confined to the Indian trade. The balance of trade with all countries is generally settled by specie shipments; hence, with the Far East, silver and gold play an important part in arbitrage.

It will thus be seen that arbitrage fills a useful place in commerce; the profits are small because the competition is great; nevertheless huge transactions employing thousands of clerks result from this system.

ARBITRATION , a term derived from the nomenclature of Roman law, and applied to an arrangement for taking, and abiding by, the judgment of a selected person in some disputed matter, instead of carrying it to the established courts of justice. In disputes between states, arbitration has long played an important part . The present article is restricted to arbitration under municipal law; but a separate article is also devoted to the use of arbitration in labour disputes .

References by consent of the court.

Here the first matter to be dealt with is the submission. A submission is defined as a written agreement to submit present or future differences to arbitration, whether a particular arbitrator is named in it or not. The capacity of a person to agree to arbitration, or to act as arbitrator, depends on the general law of contract. A submission by an infant is not void, but is voidable at his option . A counsel has a general authority to deal with the conduct of an action, which includes authority to refer it to arbitration, but he has no authority to refer an action against the wishes of his client, or on terms different from those which his client has sanctioned; and if he does so, the reference may be set aside, although the limit put by the client on his counsel's authority is not made known to the other side when the reference is agreed upon . The committee of a lunatic, with the sanction of the judge in lunacy, may refer disputes to arbitration. As an arbitrator is chosen by the parties themselves the question of his eligibility is of comparatively minor importance; and where an arbitrator has been chosen by both parties, the courts are reluctant to set the appointment aside. This question has arisen chiefly in contracts, for works, which frequently contain a provision that the engineer shall be the arbitrator, in any dispute between the contractor and his own employer. The practical result is to make the engineer judge in his own cause. But the courts will not in such cases prevent the engineer from acting, where the contractor was aware of the facts when he signed the contract, and there is no reason to believe that the engineer will be unfair . Even the fact that he has expressed an opinion on matters in dispute will not of itself disqualify him . So, too, where a barrister was appointed arbitrator, the court refused to stop the arbitration on the mere ground that he was the client of a firm of solicitors, the conduct of one of whom was in question .

An arbitrator is not liable to be sued for want of skill or for negligence in conducting the arbitration . When a building contract provides that a certificate of the architect, showing the final balance due to the contractor, shall be conclusive evidence of the works having been duly completed, the architect occupies the position of an arbitrator, and enjoys the same immunity from liability for negligence in the discharge of his functions . An arbitrator cannot be compelled to act unless he is a party to the submission.

An arbitrator has power to administer oaths to, or take the affirmations of, the parties and their witnesses; and any person who wilfully and corruptly gives false evidence before him may be prosecuted and punished for perjury . At any stage in the reference he may, and shall if he be required by the court, state in the form of a special case for the opinion of the court any question of law arising in the arbitration. The arbitrator may also state his award in whole or in part as a special case , and may correct in an award any clerical mistake or error arising from an accidental slip or omission. The costs of the reference and the award--which, under sched. i. of the act, must be in writing, unless the submission otherwise provides--are in the arbitrator's discretion, and he has a lien on the award and the submission for his fees, for which--if there is an express or implied promise to pay them--he can also sue . An arbitrator or umpire ought not, however, to state his award in such a way as to deprive the parties of their right to challenge the amount charged by him for his services; and accordingly where an umpire fixed for his award a lump sum as costs, including therein his own and the arbitrators' fees, the award was remitted back to him to state how much he allotted to himself and how much to the arbitrators . But in the absence of evidence to show that the fees charged by arbitrators or umpire are extortionate, or unfair and unreasonable, the courts will not interfere with them .

If there is no express provision on the point in the submission, an award under the Arbitration Act 1889 must be made within three months after the arbitrator has entered on the reference, or been called upon to act by notice in writing from any party to the submission. The time may, however, be extended by the arbitrator or by the court. An umpire is required to make his award within one month after the original or extended time appointed for making the award of the arbitrators has expired, or any later day to which he may enlarge it. The court may by order remit an award to the arbitrators or umpire for reconsideration, in which case the reconsidered award must be made within three months after the date of the order.

Provisions for the arbitration of special classes of disputes are contained in many acts of parliament, e.g. the Local Government Acts 1888, 1894, the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883 to 1906, the Small Holdings and Allotments Act 1907, the Light Railways Act 1896, the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890, the Workmen's Compensation Act 1906, &c.

References under order of court.

The court or a judge may refer any question arising in any cause or matter to an official or special referee, whose report may be enforced like a judgment or order to the same effect. This power may be exercised whether the parties desire it or not. The official referees are salaried officers of court. The remuneration of special referees is determined by the court or judge. An entire action may be referred, if all parties consent, or if it involves any prolonged examination of documents, or scientific or local examination, or consists wholly or partly of matters of account.

"Hyv? is? h?n on aina minulle ollut, ja parastani h?n on ankaruudellaan tarkoittanut", sai h?n sanotuksi ja laski k?tens? vanhuksen otsalle.

Vakavakin, lempe?mielisen Jokijalan is?nn?nkin silmiin ilmausi kyyneleit?, ja h?n huokasi raskaasti.

H?m?rtyv? elokuun ilta Pohjolassa, ensimm?isen t?hden v?lke valoisan kes?n per?st?!

Vaikka p?iv? viel? on pitk? ja l?mmin, tuntuu elokuun lopulla silt?, kuin kes?n henget?r kulkisi jo vakavapiirteisen? etel?isi? maailmoja kohden. Ja vaikka valo viel? voittaa ja taivas iloitsee varhaisina, kirkkaina aamuina ja lempein?, tyvenin? iltoina, niin vaalean sinen ja y?n verho kattaa sen.

Ja kun ensimm?inen t?hti n?kyy pohjoisella taivaanrannalla, on sen v?lke kuin hyv?stij?tt? kes?lle ja kuin tervehdys raittiille syksylle. Mutta alakuloiseksi k?y mieli sen n?kemisest?, sill? silloin on hauskin ja valoisin aika kes?st? mennyt.

Perttu seisoi viel? pellollaan, jossa h?n oli nostanut viimeisi? sitomia kuhilaaseen, ja katseli taivaan kantta. Omituisia ajatuksia risteili hocedure Act 1854, for the conduct of arbitrations and the enforcement of awards. Irish statute law, like that of England and Scotland, contains numerous provisions for arbitration under special enactments.

Voluntary submissions.

All controversies of a civil nature, and any question of personal injury on which a suit for damages will lie, although it may also be indictable, may be referred to arbitration; but crimes, and perhaps actions on penal statutes by common informers may not. The submission may be effected sometimes by parol, sometimes by written instrument, sometimes by deed or deed poll. Capacity to refer depends on the general law of contractual capacity. The law of England as to the capacity to act as an arbitrator and as to objections to an arbitrator on the ground of interest has been closely followed by the American courts. The same observation applies as to the requisites of an award, the mode of its enforcement and the grounds on which it will be set aside. The arbitrator has a lien on the award for his fees; and--a point of difference from the English law--he may sue for them without an express promise to pay . At common law, a submission is generally revocable at any time before award; and it is also, in the absence of stipulation to the contrary, revoked by the death of one of the parties. Provision has been made in Pennsylvania for compulsory arbitration by an act of the 16th of June 1836 .

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