Read Ebook: The National Geographic Magazine Vol. II. No. 3 July 1890 by Various

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From this same axial point in the southwest corner a main spur or branch of the Rockies, called the Bitter Root Mountains, bears northwesterly and falling away in height, gives out with an elevation of 2,200 feet in northern Missoula County where the Clarke's Fork river leaves the State, cutting across the foot of this range.

East of Madison and Jefferson Counties, and along the southern border of the State, are numerous short mountain ranges, often 10,000 feet and sometimes 11,000 feet in elevation, which have generally a north and south trend and fall off near the middle of the State to a continuous, broad, and nearly level high prairie, or as it is locally called "bench land," which continues to fall slowly in the same direction.

Do not imagine that these great ranges of mountains are wild and uninhabited for such is not the case; they are merely great mountain masses, and between, among and on top of them are other minor ranges of mountains, usually having symmetrical and regularly sloping sides, which are separated by broad, level and very fertile valleys, everywhere inhabited and cultivated by the aid of irrigation, while herds of cattle, horses and sheep graze on the hillsides.

Even among the roughest mountains a man may travel alone on horseback sure of finding shelter and food somewhere in the course of a day's journey, as was done by the author during the past summer, when he rode over 2,000 miles in various parts of the State. In the more rugged places mining camps may be met with when everything else fails.

At present these mountain valleys are the more thickly inhabited portions of the country, both because of the mines and because farming pursuits are more cheaply and conveniently followed owing to the greater abundance of small and easily controlled streams of water, which render irrigation possible even by the poorest settler. Only in the southern portions of Gallatin and Park Counties are the mountains so forbidding as to be uninhabited, and then in limited areas only.

One of the remarkable characteristics of the Montana mountains is their great regularity and smoothness of contour. It is probable that ice action during the glacial period may have planed off the irregularities, so characteristic of the elsewhere rugged outline of the Rocky Mountains. Between these symmetrical ranges of mountains lie the broad and fertile valleys before referred to. These are generally valleys of construction, and in some former geologic period were occupied by lakes whose beds have since been drained by the streams, as they cut their way out of the mountains.

It is the extensive deposits from the ancient lakes which give to these valleys their fertile soils, while the unusual mildness of their climate is largely due to the fact that they are seldom over 5,000 feet in altitude, and the high mountains surrounding them shelter them from the severe winds which, sweeping over the plains of Dakota, become the much dreaded "blizzards."

East of the Tongue River and north of the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers, the level bench lands are everywhere below 3,500 feet in elevation, and often below 2,500 feet, and are very dry and devoid of water, though covered by an abundant growth of fine bunch grass. These bench lands are traversed by a few narrow, deep "coule?s" or "washes" having bluff banks 50 to 300 feet high, dry during most of the year, though roaring torrents in the early spring months.

It is on these bench lands that irrigation will find its greatest field, for here is a comparatively mild climate owing to the low altitude, and here the soil is fertile, warm and deep.

AREA AND KINDS OF LANDS.

The total area of Montana is 146,080 square miles, or 93,491,200 acres. Of this vast empire 31,373,000 acres or about one-third of the whole is agricultural land, while of this 18,157,000 acres or a little less than one-fifth of the entire area is irrigable land, so classified not only because it will, if provided with water, raise profitable crops, but also because, in my opinion, water can with proper management be provided for it.

Of the total area of the State only about 1,200,000 acres or less than one-sixteenth of the irrigable area may be easily cultivated, by this I do not mean that this whole amount is now reclaimed, but that it may with the means liable to be employed by private parties with limited capital, be readily brought under cultivation by the same methods by which most of the lands in Montana are now irrigated.

The amount of land actually under cultivation, according to the assessment of 1888, was 348,070 acres, and this should probably be increased by about one-half, since the farmers doubtless greatly underestimated the amounts of their cultivated lands to the assessor: perhaps then, 500,000 acres under cultivation would be nearer the truth.

It is estimated that three-fourths of the remaining 75,000,000 acres not classed above as irrigable, or say 55,000,000 acres, which is nearly two-thirds of the total area of the State, will, with the increased facilities for watering live stock and for domestic use offered by the highest state of irrigation development, become valuable as grazing land, since it is naturally covered with an abundant growth of bunch grass, and only needs better facilities for watering and for the establishment of home farms, to cause it to be entirely occupied for grazing purposes.

Nearly, or quite all, of the lands above classified as agricultural and pasture lands, are now covered with an abundant growth of bunch grass, occasional patches of sage brush or prickly pear, and devoid of any timber other than patches of willows and cottonwoods along the streams, or a few isolated clumps of scrub pines and junipers on the highest lands.

About 10,000,000 of the remaining 20,000,000 acres are excellent timber lands and are situated on the slopes and sides of the higher mountains, though west of the Continental Divide the valleys and flat bench lands are sometimes covered with timber.

The remaining 10,000,000 acres may be classed as barren and rugged mountain peaks and some little barren "bad lands" near the southeastern corner of the State, and the broken and rough cut banks of rivers, "coule?s," etc.

It is in these more rugged mountain regions that the great gold, silver and copper deposits are found.

CLIMATE.

The climate of Montana is far more moderate and agreeable than is generally supposed, the spring and fall months in the valleys, which are the principal inhabited and cultivated portions, being delightfully mild and pleasant, with frost generally only at night, though these last till May and begin in early October.

The accompanying table shows the dates of the first and last killing frosts at Helena, also the mean monthly temperature at Helena, which place is chosen as a typical station, its altitude being 4,262 feet. From this table, which extends over a period of ten years, from 1880 to 1889, inclusive, with few interruptions, it appears that the earliest killing frost occurred on September 6th, 1881, and the latest killing frost on May 3d, 1888, but these were very exceptional frosts, the average dates for the same periods being September 26th and April 26th. The maximum temperature during the same period occurred in July, 1886, and was 103 degrees in the shade, while no other year showed a higher temperature than 97 degrees; and the average maximum temperature for the ten years was 94 degrees. The minimum temperature for the same period was -40 degrees, occurring in February, 1887, while the average minimum for ten years was -29 degrees. Great ranges of temperature are sometimes experienced, however, especially in local areas in the higher mountain valleys, where unusual frosts and snow flurries have occurred, though rarely, killing potatoes and other tender crops even in July and August.

On September 5th of this year in the upper Madison Valley above 6500 feet of elevation, a temperature was experienced in the forenoon of 70 degrees, while at about 8 o'clock on the same evening, a snow squall occurred during which the thermometer must have fallen several degrees below the freezing point; by 9 o'clock on the following morning all of the snow had disappeared and the temperature had greatly moderated.

The summer months in these mountain valleys are always agreeably warm during the day time, while the nights are cool and pleasant. In the winter the climate is very cold, though not so uncomfortable as the temperature would indicate, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere and the absence of very high winds in the mountain valleys. The more exposed plains to the north are subject to the frequent and agreeable visits of the famous "Chinook" winds, which blow from the west, and under whose influence heavy falls of snow disappear in a single day.

The following table shows the mean annual rain-fall at various Signal Service stations in Montana, and from these it will be seen that during a period of ten years the maximum rain-fall for the entire State has only been 20.33 inches in 1880, while the minimum has occurred during 1886 and was but 12.52 inches; the average precipitation for this period was 15.25 inches.

Moreover, from the first table, showing the average monthly precipitation at the Helena station, it will be seen that but 4.48 inches fall during May 15th to August 15th, inclusive, which is the growing season when the crops require moisture.

The information regarding evaporation is as yet very meagre, but from four stations observed in different parts of the State during August, September and October, it appears that the total average evaporation for the three months was 18 inches, and from the best information obtainable it appears that the total annual evaporation is 36 inches, that is to say, the surface of the water in a lake or reservoir will be lowered by evaporation 3 feet in a year.

WHY MONTANA IS AN ARID COUNTRY.

It has been stated by Major J. W. Powell, that in a general way the line between the humid and arid regions, or the amount of precipitation below which irrigation becomes necessary for the cultivation of crops, is from 24 to 28 inches per annum. This of course depends largely on the distribution of the rainfall, the proportion falling during the growing season, the humidity of the atmosphere, the character of the soil, etc.

The average annual precipitation in Montana is 14.92 inches, while the total average precipitation during the growing season is but 5.23 inches; from these considerations alone it is evident that the State lies wholly in the arid region.

This statement is further born out by the fact that no native farmer will settle a ranch or undertake to raise any kind of crops without facilities for irrigating, since experience has taught them all, that, though there may occasionally be an exceptionally wet season in which they can raise good crops without artificial aid, still, the years when crops depending wholly upon rain-fall for their moisture would be entirely lost, are so frequent as to render farming without irrigation very hazardous and unprofitable.

SOIL.

The soil along the stream bottoms at a slight elevation above their beds is usually a heavy, black, clayey loam, and though rich and fertile is soon clogged by water, and then in drying, cakes on the surface, killing the young plants. On this account the irrigators seldom water these bottom lands until after the crop has acquired a healthy growth, preferring to trust to the early rains to force the young sprouts above the surface, rather than run the risk of its crusting and thus preventing them from breaking through.

These bottom lands though really the poorest for irrigating, are nearly the only lands now cultivated, because of the greater ease and cheapness of supplying them with water. From two to three tons of hay and from 35 to 50 bushels of grain per acre are raised even on these inferior soils.

The best, and by far the more abundant agricultural lands, are the "bench lands," these are situated high above the stream beds and the soil is usually a warm open, rich, sandy-loam, several feet in depth and usually underlain by a deep bed of gravel. Though in irrigating, this soil at first requires more water, it will, owing to its excellent natural drainage, last for all time and will neither clog with water nor cake on the surface.

It is these bench lands which will be rendered irrigable by government aid and surveys, though to develop them will require large amounts of capital; still, they are so extensive in area that the work can generally be conducted on a grand and economical scale.

DUTY OF WATER.

From the meagre information now obtainable it is probable that in average soils and for the staple hay, grain and vegetable crops in Montana, about one cubic foot of water per second, flowing during the irrigating season, will be sufficient for 100 acres; this quantity is known as the "duty of water."

The irrigating season lasts about three months. While the crops are maturing during part of May, June and July, they will receive two or three waterings, and in early September the hay lands are again watered in order to start the growth of grass before the frosts.

In case all the surplus water of a given stream is stored, the duty of that stream will be increased by the amount of water now flowing to waste during the remaining nine months, and as a portion of this time is the flood period, owing to the melting of the snows in the mountains and to the spring rains, this storage water will increase the duty of the stream at least five-fold; that is, five times as many acres may be irrigated by the stream as at present, provided that storage capacity can be found for all of its waste waters.

In considering the duty of a stream it must be remembered that there is a great loss of water by seepage through the sides of a canal and evaporation from its surface, between the headworks and the irrigated lands, this loss may amount to from 25 to 35 per cent., according to climate, soil, and the length and cross-section of the canal.

PRESENT STATE OF IRRIGATION--PROGRESS AND LAWS.

The earlier stages of irrigation development are better illustrated in Montana than in any other State in the Union.

There irrigation practice and laws are exceedingly crude and remain so chiefly because of the abundance of water, and the ease and facility with which it can be diverted to the land; as a consequence of this latter fact the laws were framed in the most liberal spirit, declaring right of eminent domain, acknowledging the right of priority in appropriating the waters, and further stating, that any person having a ditch leading to irrigable lands may use the waters of the territory for irrigation.

The latest law, framed in 1885, is a very slight improvement; it requires persons appropriating water, to post the usual notice in a conspicuous place; to file with the county recorder a notice of appropriation, with names and proper description of place, stream, etc., and that work must be commenced within forty days of the posting of the notice and be prosecuted with due diligence until completed.

Persons who have heretofore acquired title to the use of water, may within six months from the passage of this law file a statement of the above facts in the office of the recorder, but failure to do this shall not forfeit his rights.

Provision is made for the measurement of water, using that very uncertain and elastic unit, the miner's inch, and defining the same.

The difficulties arising under these laws will be appreciated, when I state that it is impossible to construct a rating flume that will measure the number of inches of water flowing in a large stream, by the method provided in the law.

Then, because previous appropriators are not compelled to record the amount of water appropriated, and those acquiring titles under the first law now invariably claim much more water than they need, in fact often appropriate and even record more water than there is flowing in the stream. This is owing to the fact that they were not at first compelled to construct their works, "with due diligence until completed," nor to make ditches of capacities capable of carrying the volumes claimed, and above all because there is no officer having the power to measure the quantities of water diverted or to see that the works are prosecuted with due diligence. Endless and unsatisfactory litigation results, hastened by the occupation of lands lower down on some stream which in a very dry season may not flow sufficient water for all the appropriators who have acquired titles, whereupon the later settlers who have recorded their appropriations claim the water, while those who diverted water before the passage of the last law claim the right to it, though unrecorded, and as a consequence the case is carried to the courts, often with unjust and always with expensive results.

During the past exceptionally dry season these conditions led to much bitter litigation, often to bloodshed, and equally often to financial ruin owing to the supply of water being insufficient to mature the crops planted.

Water being very abundant in the smaller mountain valleys has led to great wastefulness in its use, the irrigator after applying what water his crops needed, instead of turning it back into the stream for the use of settlers lower down, generally turns his ditch loose on the open prairie and allows the water to run to waste. Then wasteful methods of applying the water to the crops are employed, and owing to the cheap and hasty construction of a vast number of small ditches the loss by seepage is very great; it has been estimated that there is on an average a ditch for every 200 acres of land cultivated, making a total of about 2500 irrigating ditches in the State.

In the last two years there has been a marked increase in the interest taken in irrigation enterprises, and though this has resulted in the formation of several large companies, which intend to take water by long and expensive canals to sections now uncultivated, yet in these cases are universally seen the same crude methods employed in first beginnings, without the aid and advice of experienced engineers. Large canals are being constructed at great cost, capable of carrying many times the amount of water flowing in the stream appropriated, whereas a much smaller and less expensive one would have carried the entire water supply. Again small canals have been constructed to carry small volumes of water very long distances, often 50 to 80 miles, while in reality owing to the great percentage of loss by seepage and evaporation, little or none of the water entering at the headgates will ever reach the irrigable lands.

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