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PAGE.

INTRODUCTION 5

SCRIPTA 8

RELIQUIAE 12

EXEMPLA 14

RATIONES 16

GREEK MEASURES 20

CYMATIUM 22

PTERON 24

PYRAMID 27

VERTICAL HEIGHTS 30

ARCHITECTURAL ORDINANCE 33

LACUNARIA 36

SCULPTURE AND PEDESTALS 38

CONCLUSION 43

LIST OF WOODCUTS.

DIRECTION TO BINDER.

MAUSOLEUM AT HALICARNASSUS.

INTRODUCTION.

Of all the examples of the wonderful arts of the Greeks, the remains or the memories of which have come down to us, no one has excited such curiosity as the far-famed Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, or such regret that no fragments of it should have existed in our own days. All we knew of it, till very recently, was that the ancients themselves were inclined to look upon it as the very best specimen of architectural art which they possessed. For not only did they rank it as among the seven wonders of the world, but assigned it that pre-eminence--not because of its size or durability, but because of the intrinsic beauty of its design, and the mode in which it was ornamented.

The Pyramids of Egypt and Walls of Babylon were wonders only because of their mass or their durability. The Palace of Cyrus or the Hanging Gardens of Babylon may have been rich in colour and barbaric splendour, but we know enough of Assyrian and of Persian art to feel convinced that the taste in which they were designed must at least have been very questionable. The Colossus at Rhodes, and the Statue of Jupiter at Elis, whatever their merits,--and of one, at least, of them we can believe anything,--did not belong to architectural art. The Temple of Ephesus may have been beautiful in itself, but it became a wonder only from its size, as the largest of Greek temples. But the Mausoleum, which covered not more than one-sixth or one-seventh of its area, could have been remarkable only because it was beautiful, or in consequence of the elaboration and taste displayed in its ornamentation.

Still there were so many facts in his statements, and the building was so celebrated, that few architects have escaped the temptation of trying to restore it. What the squaring of the circle is to the young mathematician, or the perpetual motion to the young mechanician, the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus was to the young architect; and with the data at his disposal this problem seemed as insoluble as the other two.

Some forty or fifty of these restorations have been published, and a strange and amusing collection they are. Some are round, some octagonal, some cruciform, some oblong or square in plan, some are squat, some tall. Every dimension found in Pliny was applied to every part in succession, but in vain. All these designs had only one thing in common;--that they were all wrong,--some more, some less so, but none seizing what now turn out to be the main features of the design.

In 1846, Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, who was then all-powerful as our ambassador at Constantinople, obtained from the Porte a firman for the removal of certain bassi-rilievi which had been built into the walls of the Castle of Budrum, the ancient Halicarnassus. These arrived in England in due course, and were at once admitted to be fragments of the sculpture of the Mausoleum, as it had been previously assumed that they were. But their beauty only served further to increase the regret that all traces of the building to which they once belonged should have been, as it then appeared, for ever lost.

While things were in this very unsatisfactory position, the public heard with no small degree of interest that Mr. Charles Newton, formerly one of the officers of the British Museum, and then Vice-Consul at Mitylene, had not only discovered the true site of the Mausoleum on a spot formerly indicated by Professor Donaldson, but had found considerable remains of the long-lost building.

Public attention was still further attracted to the subject when it was announced that the British Government had fitted out an extensive expedition, to continue the explorations commenced by Mr. Newton at Budrum and its neighbourhood. From the time that the expeditionary force commenced its labours in October, 1856, till it was broken up nearly three years afterwards, in June, 1859, occasional paragraphs kept up the interest in its proceedings, and latterly the arrival of the marbles themselves excited expectation to the highest pitch. Everything seemed to shadow forth a most brilliant success; and, from the high character which Mr. Newton bore as a Greek scholar, and a thoroughly educated archaeologist, all the Hellenist public rejoiced that an expedition fitted out on so liberal a scale, and for so desirable an object, had fallen into what all then believed to be such competent hands.

The first published results were not encouraging. They took the form of Papers presented to Parliament, and published as a Blue Book in 1858, and a second series entitled "Further Papers relating to the Excavations at Budrum and Cnidus, presented in August, 1859."

The diagrams of the Mausoleum which accompanied these Papers seemed only sufficient to prove one of two things;--either that the explorations had not resulted in the discovery of a sufficient quantity of architectural forms to enable a satisfactory restoration to be made, or that those who conducted the expedition were not sufficiently versed in the art of putting together architectural fragments to be able to avail themselves of the information that had been obtained.

The whole results of the expedition were at last laid before the public in February last, in a folio volume of plates accompanied by a volume of text in 8vo. by Mr. Newton. This work contains, among other things, an elaborate restoration of the Mausoleum by Mr. Pullan, an architect who was sent out by the Trustees of the British Museum to join the expedition during the continuance of its labours. This restoration, however, turns out on examination to be less satisfactory than those previously published by Lieut. Smith in the parliamentary papers above alluded to, either as a specimen of Greek art or as a solution of the difficulties inherent in the problem of reconciling the recent discoveries with the ancient descriptions of the building. It is also unfortunate that--owing probably to their author being absent from the country--the purely architectural plates are so incorrectly drawn or engraved as to add considerably to the previously existing difficulties of the question. It is likewise to be regretted that, for some reason which is not explained, all the best things are omitted from the collection. The statue of Mausolus is not there, nor that of the Goddess which accompanied the chariot. The Horses of the Chariot are also omitted; so is the Torso of the prancing Amazon, the finest thing found; so are the Castle bassi-rilievi, and the really fine Lions. There are, in fact, materials left out sufficient to fill, if not so large a volume as the present, at least one of a far higher class. Notwithstanding these difficulties and defects, there appear to be sufficient materials now before the public to effect a restoration of the building, and as almost all that was discovered on the spot is now in the British Museum, a reference to them enables us to correct or verify what has been published. Under these circumstances I have not hesitated to make the attempt. With what success I must leave it to others to judge after a perusal of the contents of the following pages.

The materials which now exist for restoring the Mausoleum are of four different kinds. These are:--

Among the things written with regard to the Mausoleum, by far the most important is the celebrated passage in Pliny's Natural History. It is to the following effect: "Scopas had, as rivals in the same age, Bryaxis, and Timotheus, and Leochares, who should be mentioned together, as they were equally employed in the sculptures of the Mausoleum, a sepulchre erected by his wife Artemisia to Mausolus, King of Caria, who died in the second year of the hundred and seventh Olympiad. It was mainly owing to the work of the above-named artists that this building was considered one of the seven wonders of the world. It extends on the north and south 63 feet, but is shorter on the other fronts. The whole circumference is 411 feet. It is raised in height 25 cubits, and is surrounded by 36 columns. This part was called the pteron. The sculptures on the east side were by Scopas, on the north by Bryaxis, on the south by Timotheus, and on the west by Leochares. Before they had finished their work, the Queen Artemisia, who had ordered this building to be constructed in honour of her husband's memory, died; but they did not on that account cease from their labours till it was entirely finished, regarding it as a monument of their own fame and of art; and to this day the work testifies to their rivalry in merit. A fifth artist was joined to them; for above the pteron there was a pyramid equal in height to the lower part, with 24 steps, contracting into a summit, like that of a meta. On the top of all this was a quadriga in marble, made by Pythis. These being added, the height of the whole work was equal to 140 feet."

It is easy to see what difficulties were involved in this description. How, in the first instance, was it possible that a building which was only 63 feet in length in plan, and shorter on the other sides, could be 411 feet in circumference? and, in regard to height, what substantive was to be supplied after "inferiorem"? If "partem," it might apply to the pteron, which is the only part mentioned in the previous description; but the logic seemed to require "pyramidem," and if so, what was it? If either, how was the whole height of 140 feet to be made up?

In looking a little carefully into the matter we can now guess how it was that Pliny came to state these dimensions in so enigmatical a manner; for we learn from Vitruvius that Satyrus and Phytheus, two of the architects employed in the building, wrote a description of their work, which no doubt Pliny had access to; but as he was thinking more of the sculpture than of the architecture, he jotted down these dimensions without probably realising the form of the building himself, and left them as a bewildering enigma for posterity. Now that we have the means of verifying them, these figures are ten times more valuable than the most vivid description of the general appearance of the building would be to us; but it is only now that we feel this.

Among the Greek authors, the most amusing account is that given by Lucian in his 'Dialogues of the Dead.' He there makes Mausolus say, in reply to the scoffing inquiry of Diogenes , "Besides that personal superiority, I am beautiful, tall of stature, and of so robust a constitution as enabled me to sustain all the hardships and fatigues of war; but, to be brief, the principal point is, I have a prodigious monument raised over me at Halicarnassus, which for magnitude and beauty has not its equal in the whole world. It is decorated with the most exquisite figures of men and horses, all carried to such a degree of perfection, and in such exceedingly fine marbles, as you will not easily find even in a Temple." Further on, Diogenes remarks, "As to your monument and the costly marble of which it is built, the inhabitants of Halicarnassus may certainly have reason to show it to strangers, and to think much of themselves for possessing so costly a work within their walls; but, my handsome friend, I do not see what sort of enjoyment you should have in it. You should only say that you bear a heavier load than the rest of us, since you have such an enormous heap of stones lying on you!"

Strabo merely mentions that it was considered one of the wonders of the world.

From all this we are justified in assuming that down to the twelfth century the Mausoleum was at least sufficiently perfect to convey a correct idea of its original magnificence. Between this period and the year 1402, when the city was taken possession of by the Knights of St. John, we are led to infer that the building must have been ruined, most probably by the shock of an earthquake,--the position of many of the fragments found being such as to be explicable only on such an hypothesis.

"L'an 1522, lors que Sultan Solyman se pr?paroit pour venir assaillir les Rhodiens, le Grand Maistre s?ach?t l'importance de ceste place, et que le Turc ne faudrait point de l'empieter de premiere abordee, s'il pouuoit, y ennoya quelques cheualiers pour la remparer et mettre ordre ? tout ce qui estoit necessaire soustenir l'ennemi, du nombre desquels fut le Commandeur de la Tourette Lyonnois, lequel se treuua depuis ? la prise de Rhodes, et vint en France, o? il fit, de ce que ie vay dire mainten?t, le recit ? Monsieur d'Alechamps, personnage assez recognu par ses doctes escrits, et que ie nomme seulement ? fin qu'on s?ache de qui ie tien vne histoire si remarcable. Ces cheualiers estans arriu?s ? Mesy, se mirent incontinent en deuoir de faire fortifier le chasteau, et pour auoir de la chaux, ne treuuans pierre aux enuirons plus propre pour en cuire, ni qui leur vinst plus aisee, que certaines marches de marbre blanc, qui s'esleuoyent en forme de perron emmy d'un champ pr?s du port, l? o? iadis estoit la grande place d'Halycarnasse, ils les fir?t abattre et prendre pour cest effect. La pierre s'estant renc?tree bonne, fut cause, que ce peu de ma?onnerie, qui parroissoit sur terre, ayant est? demoli, ils firent fouiller plus bas en esperance d'en treuuer d'auantage. Ce qui leur succeda fort heureusement: car ils recognurent en peu d'heure, que de tant plus qu'on creusoit profond, d'autant plus s'eslargissoit par le bas la fabrique, qui leur fournit par apres de pierres, non seulement ? faire de la chaux, mais aussi pour bastir. Au bout de quatre ou cinque iours, apres auoir faict vne grande descouuerte, par vne apres disnee ils virent ouverture comme pour entrer dans vne caue: ils prirent de la chandelle, et deualerent dedans, o? ils treuuerent vne belle grande salle carree, embellie tout au tour de colonnes de marbre, avec leur bases, chapiteaux, architraues, frises et cornices grauees et taillees en demy bosse: l'entredeux des colonnes estait reuestu de lastres, listeaux ou plattes bandes de marbre de diuerses couleurs ornees de moulures et sculptures conformes au reste de l'oeuure, et rapport?s properm?t sur le fonds bl?c de la muraille, o? ne se voyait qu'histoires taillees, et toutes battailles ? demy relief. Ce qu'ayans admir? de prime face, et apres avoir estim? en leur fant?sie la singularite de l'ouurage, en fin ils defirent, briserent, et rompirent, pour s'en seruir comme ils auoyent faicte du demeurant. Outre ceste sale ils treuuerent apres vne porte fort basse, qui conduisoit ? une autre, comme antichambre, ou il y auoit vn sepulcre auec son vase et son tymbre de marbre blanc, fort beau et reluisant ? merueilles, lequel, pour n'avoir pas eu assez de temps, ils ne descouurirent, la retraicte estant desia sonnee. Le lendemain, apres qu'ils y furent retourn?s, ils treuuer?t la tombe descouuerte, et la terre semee autour de force petits morceaux de drap d'or, et paillette de mesme metal: qu leur fit penser, que les corsaires, qui escumoyent alors le long de toute ceste coste, ayans eu quelque vent de ce qui auoit est? descouuert en ce lieu l?, y vindrent de nuict, et osterent le couuercle du sepulcre, et tient on qu'ils y treuuerent des grandes richesses et thresors. Ainsi ce superbe sepulcre, compt? pour l'un des sept miracles, et ouurages merueilleux du monde, apres auoir eschapp? la fureur des Barbares, et demeur? l'espace de 2247 ans debout, du moins enseueli dedans les ruines de la ville d'Halycarnasse, fut descouuert et aboli pour remparer le chasteau de S. Pierre, par les cheualiers crois?s de Rhodes, lesquels en furent incontinent apres chass?s par le Turc, et de toute l'Asie quant et quant."

The demolition at that period seems to have been nearly complete, though it is probable that from that time to this, the Turks may have been in the habit of using such blocks of marble as may have remained above ground, to make lime. At all events, so completely was all trace of it above ground obliterated, that even so experienced an observer as Captain Spratt failed, after the most minute survey of the neighbourhood, to fix on the site where this wonder of the world had once stood.

Nothing further was done till the explorations commenced, as before mentioned, by Mr. Newton, in 1855, and the establishment of the expedition there in the following year; though, from various causes, it was not till the 1st of January, 1857, that they were really able to commence excavations on the site of the Mausoleum.

The principal discoveries which rewarded their exertions were:--

Even more important than these were four or five angle-stones of the pyramid, showing the same dimensions in juxtaposition on their two faces. It is much to be regretted that the exact number of these stones which were found was not noted. If there had been three, and they had all been found together, which seems to have been the case, they might,--probably would,--all have belonged to one course. With four this is less probable, but it still leaves it open to any one who has a theory such as that of Mr. Cockerell or Mr. Falkener, or who might suggest a curvilinear one , to assert that this was so, and thus leave the whole question still in doubt. If there were five this would be impossible, and it would simplify the argument to a considerable extent.

The truth of the matter seems to be that Lieutenant Smith's business there was to take charge of the Sappers and Miners under his command; Mr. Newton was only anxious to procure specimens of sculpture for the National Museum; and before Mr. Pullan arrived, a great deal that had been discovered was covered up again and no record left. Many points that might then have been easily cleared up must now, therefore, be left in doubt, unless some one will take the trouble of doing over again what has been so carelessly done once.

The last mode of investigation which has been mentioned as open to us, yields results which, though not so obvious at first sight, are quite as satisfactory as those obtained from any of the previously mentioned sources of information.

As will be explained in the sequel, we find that, by the application of the formula of simple ratios, we are enabled to fix the dimensions of almost every part of the Mausoleum with almost absolute certainty; and at the same time it is found that the Mausoleum is one of the most complete and interesting examples of a building designed wholly on a scheme of simple definite ratios. Thus the very science which assists materially in solving the problem, is at the same time illustrated and confirmed by the discoveries it aids in making.

The first attempt to explain the peculiarities of buildings by a scheme of definite ratios seems to be that expounded by Caesar Caesarini, in his edition of Vitruvius, published in 1521. In this work he shows by diagrams how a series of equilateral triangles explains all the dimensions and peculiarities of design in Milan Cathedral; and in this he probably was right, for, being a foreign work, it is very probable that the Italian architects, not understanding the true principles of the art, squeezed the design into this formal shape and so spoiled it. The success of this attempt of Caesarini, however, has induced numberless other architects to apply the same principle to other Gothic Cathedrals, but without success in a single instance. Those which approach nearest to it are such buildings as Westminster Abbey,--a French church built in England; Cologne Cathedral, which is a French example in Germany; and in like manner all foreign examples approximate to definite proportions; but it may safely be asserted that no truly native example of Gothic art was so arranged.

It has, however, long been suspected that the Greeks proceeded on a totally different principle; but materials did not exist for a satisfactory elucidation of the question till Mr. Penrose published his exquisite survey of the Parthenon and other buildings at Athens made for the Society of Dilettanti, and Mr. Cockerell the result of his explorations at Bassae and Egina. In the first-named work, its author pointed out with sufficient clearness some of the principal ratios of that celebrated building, which his survey enabled him to verify, and for others he supplied dimensions which for completeness and accuracy left nothing to be desired. With these new materials, Mr. Watkiss Lloyd undertook the investigation, and by a long and careful series of comparisons he has proved that the time-honoured doctrine of the Vitruvian school--that the lower diameter of a column was the modulus of every other part of a building--had no place in Greek art; on the contrary, that every part of a Greek building was proportioned to those parts in juxtaposition or analogy to it, in some such ratio as 3 to 4, 4 to 5, 5 to 6, and so on,--not by accident, but by careful study; and the whole design was evolved from a nexus of proportions as ingenious in themselves as they were harmonious in their result.

In the Parthenon, for instance, he found that the entire building is set out with the minutest accuracy, by the application of a few ratios which involve no higher number than 16, and in no case have a higher difference between them than 5.

The greatest ingenuity and refinement were exercised in embracing the entire design in a network of proportional relations, in such a way that every division had a special dependence upon some other that was particularly contrasted or connected with it; and at the same time every member was implicated in more than one such comparison by what might seem happy accident, were it not that on trial it is proved how much study is required to effect such a result. At the same time, when the clue is once gained, it is easy to see how study was competent to effect it.

Among the proportional applications affecting the present subject, which may be considered axiomatic are these:--

The establishment of proportions of low numbers between--

The more direct application of this theory to the design of the Mausoleum will be explained as we proceed, but in the meanwhile it may be asserted that without it many of the dimensions of this celebrated monument might for ever have remained matters of dispute. With its assistance there is scarcely one that may not be ascertained with almost absolute certainty.

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