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Transcriber's Note: This e-text is reproduced from the original typescript submitted by the author for her bachelor's degree. Whilst undoubtedly she would have liked it to be error-free, it wasn't, and for authenticity the typos etc. have been left in situ--save for the incorporation of her handwritten corrections, and some attention to missing/extraneous punctuation/spacing.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA

BY KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE

THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF MUSIC IN MUSIC

SCHOOL OF MUSIC UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS 1917

UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

June 1, 1907

THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE THESIS PREPARED UNDER MY SUPERVISION BY

KATHRYN ELEANOR BROWNE

ENTITLED THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.

IS APPROVED BY ME AS FULFILLING THIS PART OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

BACHELOR OF MUSIC

George F. Schwartz Instructor in Charge

APPROVED: J Lawrence Erb

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF Music

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.

Table of Contents.

Introduction Page 3.

I The Beginnings of Opera to Gluck Page 5.

II Gluck Page 14.

V Post Wagnerian School--Including Modern Russian, French, Italian, German and American Composers. Page 34.

VI Appendix of Tables Page 44.

Table I, General Page 46.

Table II, Number and Kind of Characters Page 48.

Table IV, Solos Page 52.

Table V, Recitative Page 54.

Table VI, Ensemble Page 56.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF CERTAIN TENDENCIES IN MODERN OPERA.

INTRODUCTION.

In this thesis there has been an attempt made to trace the origin, growth and development, and modification of various tendencies in the Opera. The form only of the opera has been considered and no attempt has been made towards the harmonic analysis of the various operas. The main tendencies that have been discussed are, the differences in regard to; the number of acts employed; the number and kind of characters; a comparison; of the proportion of orchestral work, overtures, ballets and ritornelli; of solo work and the various voices employed; of recitative, spoken, accompanied and unaccompanied; of ensemble work, duets, trios, quartets, quintets and sextets; and separate from this last, a consideration of the proportion of chorus work, mixed, and that sung by the men and the women alone.

A study has been made of thirty-four operas and in order to accurately consider these proportions, tables have been prepared, showing the percentage of the factors portrayed. These percentages have been obtained by actual count of the measures devoted to the solos, choruses, ensembles, etc. There are seven tables.

Table I is a general table showing the number of characters, acts, percentage of orchestra, solo, recitative, ensemble and chorus.

Table II shows the distribution and number of characters.

Table V shows the percentage of recitative and its distribution to the various voices.

Table VI shows the percentage of ensemble work and the various kinds.

"Rappresentatione de Anima" by Cavalieri is generally classed as an oratorio but many authorities consider it an opera, as he was one of Peri's contemporaries, and worked with the little band of Florentine nobles, and this was the first work which resulted from their meetings. However, whether it is an opera or an oratorio, the forms in those days were very vague, hence, the component factors are interesting as compared to the later operas, and inasmuch as no score could be obtained earlier than 1675, it will suffice as a type of that time. In studying the operas from Wagner on, the solos have been very difficult to distinguish from the recitative, and consequently any stretch of solo singing over twenty or twenty-five measures in length, with any sort of tune, has been considered as a solo.

Before beginning the survey of modern operas and before tracing the development of the different tendencies, it will be interesting to consider briefly the historic source of the opera, and the part that music played in the various dramas, madrigals, ballets, church services, etc.

It is an acknowledged fact that Peri and his little band of Florentine reformers went back to the old Greek dramas for their models and forms. However, it is not to be supposed that opera was developed spontaneously among these reformers. Like every other world wide movement, it was the culmination of tendencies and customs from various sources. We have no reason to accept the Greek dramas as the only models which served, although they were considered seriously by the first opera writers.

The Egyptians sang jubilations to their Gods. These consisted of florid cadences on prolonged vowel sounds. In the old Greek dramas, music played an important part. The Greek tragedy and comedy developed from the hymns, choral dances and chants sung by a chorus of singers disguised as satyrs, at the festivals of Bacchus. The chorus often addressed the audience on topical subjects. The various actors intoned or chanted their words, and were often accompanied by a lyre and other instruments of the day. The chorus chanted their parts. This would not be termed music by us today, but was more of a recitative. Later the chorus chanted while the principals sang, forming a sort of background accompaniment. The slow developement of the music in the mass must not be forgotten, but there is nothing which definitely resembles opera until the thirteenth century. "Noel" was supposed to be a song which the angels sang, and is found in many festivals. Perhaps this may be termed one of the sources of Wagner's ideas, the association of a particular song with one group of people. In the "Three Maries" the chorus sang words in Latin, Gabriel and the three virgins sang, but the words of the Savior had no music. The "Fete of the Ass" was quite an elaborate festival and here the various characters sang quite definitely, and the congregation was urged at stated intervals to join in the singing. Part of the words and music were symbolical, especially those imitating the braying of the ass. "The Passion", in 1264, enacted by the Fraternity of the Gonfalone, lasted for several days, and contained scenes which were sung, choruses and a trio.

At this period, we must consider the vaudeville plays which were plays interspersed with song. "Li gieus de Robin et de Marion", given at the court of Charles d'Artois in Naples in 1285, was an operatic symptom and was divided into songs, spoken dialogue, dialogue songs in which two voices alternated, and popular ballad tunes, although the music was not appropriate since it consisted of such complex counterpoint. The Madrigal plays, although comic in character, influenced in the introduction of village gossip related by chorus. The "Ballet de la Reine" was a brilliant ballet with elaborate scenery, costumes, music, etc. It contained solos, duets, choruses and instrumental interludes. The melody, however, was only loosely associated with the play. In 1554 "Il Sagrifigio", a pastoral drama, arose, in which the priest sang solos, accompanied by lyre and the chorus. The first solo singing was in the Madrigal of Corteccia in 1539. In "Aminta", 1573, the choruses separated acts, and introduced the action danced to the chorus behind the scenes. There was no attempt at the complete setting of the text in these plays, and no union of the lyrics by any sort of recitative. In "Decameron" one or another of the personages sang to the company, and they all sang and danced. The lyric solo resembled somewhat the dramatic recitative of Peri and Caccini. The vocal melody was simple in melodic structure. Cecchi's "Esaltazione delle Croce", 1589, a sacred representation, had an orchestra of viols, lutes, horns and the orchestra played an interlude with special music. There was an accompanied solo allotted to the Deity and a dance of David. The orchestras were composed of lutes, trombones, which accomapnied the dancing, etc., but were usually silent after the entrance of the various characters, excepting the lyres. In the English masque the words and song were written for an actor but sung behind the scenes by a chorus.

The Madrigal dramas became comedies which exhibited a variety of style and expressive power. When a single character spoke, the chorus sang in madrigals, while the actors were on the stage. The music was from behind the curtain. These Madrigal dramas began to degenerate, however, as the spectacle disappeared, and the comic element became preeminent.

Then came the band of Florentine nobles who were not originators, but merely revived certain musical practices and traditions of the 14th century and modeled these on the early Greek tragedies. "Eurydice" was accompanied by a large orchestra for those days consisting of a chitarone, viola di gamba, theorba, three flutes and smaller trombones. There was a brief entr'acte, and a trio of two sopranos and a tenor. The chorus was in five parts. Previous to this the solo without harmony or harmonic support was unknown. The instrumental music was of course in its infancy and expressive melody was out of the question. This first operatic orchestra was concealed--perhaps this suggested the idea to Wagner--perhaps not. There were no set tunes, nor any sort of formal melody divided into periods, balancing each other symmetrically, but a sort of recitative which observed the inflection of the spoken words was created.

Peri developed this principle to a great extent. He expressed soft gentle speech by half spoken, half sung tones on a sustained instrumental bass. Feelings of deeper emotional kind, he expressed by melody with greater intervals and a lively tempo, accompanied by instrumental harmonies changing frequently, sometimes using dissonance. His prologue was in verse and he gave short metrical passages for the chorus which were rich in harmony. An instrumental episode in the first act and dancing in the end are effective.

Vecchi's "L'Amfiparnasso" and "Commedia Armonica" are really only a series of madrigals for five voices. There was no overture, no orchestral accompaniment, nor ritornello of any kind. When the stage was occupied by a single character, four voices were made to sing behind the scenes, foretelling the modern orchestra. In "Orfeo" the accompaniment was a figured bass. "Dafne" and "Arianna" were written in this newly invented "Stilo rappresentatino" with a larger orchestra. "Dafne" consisted of an imitation of speech, a sort of melodious recitative accompanied only with a sustained bass. The instruments were really so contrasted and combined as to invest each character and scene with marked individuality. The introductory toccata was followed by a ritornello, the recitative was accompanied by a figured bass, sometimes by two or more instruments indicated at the beginning.

These reformers really resuscitated a style of musical declamation, and their music better expressed passion and the like. There was a monodic exchanging of contrapuntal richness for the simplest of melodies, confined to a single part, and accompanied by bass of the rudest type and construction. The melodies were destitute of figure and the composers really aimed at exact oratorical rendering of the words. The possibilities of orchestral coloring were limited and the dry style of recitative really dramatically untruthful. There was little variety of contrast. This weakened the true power of the drama by the introduction of measured melody and formally constructed movements. The libbrettos were carefully considered at first, but finally declined, and more and more attention was paid to the aria and the various concerted music introduced without regard to the dramatic tendencies. The rules became strict, and it is not difficult to see how the operas became a concert in costume. We find a quotation of the rules:--

Monteverde has been termed "the Italian Wagner". He never ventured to introduce flowing melody save in the ritornello. His music was dramatic and he increased the dramatic scope of the recitative. His "Orfeo", 1607, contains the first dramatic duet. He was an innovator and gave a new developement to the harmonic system. His influence may be summed up as follows;

The bass viols accompanied Orpheus.

The violas, Eurydice.

Four Trombones, Pluto.

The organs, Apollo.

The guitars, Charon.

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