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Read Ebook: The Aviator and the Weather Bureau by Carpenter Ford A Ford Ashman
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Ebook has 57 lines and 10239 words, and 2 pages
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Text enclosed by underscores is in italics .
THE AVIATOR AND THE WEATHER BUREAU
FORD A. CARPENTER, LL.D.
Meteorologist
Illustrated with Photographs and Charts by the Author and Others
Published by the San Diego Chamber of Commerce 1917
Published by permission Dated August 25, 1916
Second edition, 5,000 copies
J. Horace McFarland Company Mt. Pleasant Press Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Introductory Note
This is a brief but general account of the history of aviation as it is associated with southern California, a description of the War Department school of aviation at San Diego, a syllabus of the course of lectures delivered there on the subject of practical meteorology as applied to aviation, a narrative of weather-study from an airplane, and a recital of subsequent active co?peration between the aviators and the U. S. Weather Bureau.
LOS ANGELES, CAL., February, 1917.
Table of Contents
The Signal Corps Aviation School at San Diego, California 7
Applied Meteorology for the Aviator 11
Weather Observations from an Airplane 16
Investigating the Upper Air 25
List of Plates
The Aviator and the Weather Bureau
THE SIGNAL CORPS AVIATION SCHOOL AT SAN DIEGO
The school is a place for hard work and quick thinking. Detail in the repair shop is part of the course, as is also the use of the gasoline engine in motor trucks as well as in aircraft. Theory and practice are closely united: the former is carried on by means of bi-daily lectures, while the early morning hours are devoted to flying. Pilot-and-observer machines equipped with double control are used in instruction. The aviation instructor ascends with the student and allows him to manipulate the controls, only resuming the management of the airplane in an emergency. Needless to say, the life of an instructor is a most hazardous one and full of thrills. His duty is to be on the alert to correct errors in the manipulation of the machine. After every trip the instructor reviews, point by point, the features of the flight, showing the pupil his deficiencies and explaining how he may avoid them in the future. The instruction is terse but kindly, and the manner of imparting this information leaves nothing to the imagination. After watching student and instructor, and closely studying the finished work of an aviator, it is my opinion that in no other occupation must there be such perfect co?rdination between mind and muscle: the perfectly qualified aviator is the modern super-man.
"It is estimated that the average cost to France of training each pilot is five thousand dollars ... no less than from four to six months are devoted to the training of finished pilots. Although I have just come from France, the progress of aviation is so rapid that much of my own knowledge may be out of date before I again return to the front."--C. D. Winslow, "With the French Flying Corps," 1917, 4-5: N. Y.
APPLIED METEOROLOGY FOR THE AVIATOR
Monthly Weather Review, 1915, 32:500. Washington.
The first official co?peration between the Weather Bureau and the War Department aviation school was inaugurated in the year 1914 by Dr. W. J. Humphreys, Professor of Meteorological Physics, when he was detailed to give a course of lectures. It was during this course that he lectured on "Holes in the Air." This paper has been reprinted as a textbook for the aviation school.
Popular Science Monthly, 1914, 44:18-34, N. Y.
"Climate and Weather of San Diego," Carpenter, 1913, 57-59, San Diego.
Introductory: Weather service once part of the Signal Corps, U.S.A. Transfer in 1891 to the Department of Agriculture.
Distribution of weather stations in the United States: Character of data obtainable: Advance data from the daily map such as Position of high and low areas. Weather conditions from sub-stations in vicinity.
The weather map: How constructed. How distributed. Specimen maps showing differing conditions in California. Winds, velocity and frequency: On-shore. Off-shore. Discussion of air conditions December 20-22, 1914. The international weather map. Relation to weekly forecasts.
Cardinal climatic features: Ascending winds and types producing them: Cloud, fog, precipitation. Descending winds: "Northers" and dust-storms. Thermograph and hygrograph traces.
Factors in the meteorology of southern California: Influence of latitude: Sea. Mountains. Desert. Path and distribution of storm areas. Knowledge of local climatology necessary in flying. Local winds discussed: "Woollies" . "Chubascos" . "Santa Anas" . "Wilmingtons" .
Historical: Original work begun in Scotland, year 1749. Characteristics-- English work; Dines' minute meteorograph. French work; Dr. Berson's balloon ascent of 6 1/2 miles. German work; detailed data in low altitudes. American work began with Franklin. The Upper Air: Definition: "Stratosphere" is the dynamical laboratory of the atmosphere where the main causes of pressure originate. Results in America: Balloon meteorograph . Charts showing rate of increase in wind velocity with elevation . Wind, temperature, pressure, humidity at maximum airplane height of 26,242 feet. Stratosphere: Lower level in winter than in summer. Lower temperature in summer when surface pressure is high. Definition: "Troposphere" is the physical laboratory where cloud and rain are produced by local causes and induced by the effect of the dynamical changes in the upper air. Conditions within 6 or 7 miles of the earth's surface. Clouds and their Meaning: Cirrus: Height and composition. Formation: Perpendicular shafts of clouds indicate rapid changes in weather. Horizontal layers, no change and clouds will dissipate. Cirro-stratus, threatening in winter. Cirro-cumulus, fair and foul varieties differentiated. Cumulus with strong uplift. Alto-cumulus, cause of parallel rows. Fracto-cumulus, wind indicator, Point Loma "woolly." Stratus. Alto-stratus, favorable for flying. Strato-cumulus, long shallow rolls, threatening in winter. Cumulo-nimbus, unsafe air conditions for flying. Fracto-nimbus, waterspouts and their causes. Velo cloud, examples, cause, effect, distribution, density. Fog, examples of great fog-belts.
NARRATIVE OF WEATHER OBSERVATIONS FROM AN AIRPLANE
In order to qualify as meteorologist competent to confer with aviators, it seemed desirable to become personally acquainted with some of the conditions that confronted them. As a matter of professional acquirement therefore, I was glad to accept an invitation to go aloft after the necessary official arrangements had been made with Washington.
This trip was in line with the previous endeavors of applying practical meteorology to the science of flight and appropriately extended the work which was begun in San Diego with Chanute and the sea-gulls fifteen years before.
Not being prepared with a regulation aviation suit, I was loaned a leather jacket by one officer, face-goggles and safety helmet by others. I then took my place in the observer's seat forward and was strapped into it with the safety belt . I was cautioned to let my body give way as the waist-controls were moved from side to side and not pay any attention to the steering rudder wheel which had a way of mysteriously revolving, advancing and receding.
In cranking an airplane, a certain formula is always gone through. The mechanician at the propeller calls out, "Close!" The aviator closes the switch and repeats the word. This short-circuits the ignition apparatus so that no spark occurs in the cylinders. The propeller is turned in order to introduce explosive mixtures into the cylinders. When ready to start the mechanician says "Open!" The aviator opens the switch and repeats the word. The charges in the cylinders then fire when the propeller is turned.
After the engine starts, the machine is "trimmed" by helpers and jockeyed for a favorable "take-off" into the air. This model of airplane climbs on a gradient 1 to 7; its minimum speed is 41 miles per hour. In other words, if the speed is less than 41 miles per hour the machine will not fly horizontally.
Trans-American Climatic Association, 1915, 31:20, Hot Springs, Va.
Next to the supporting quality of the atmosphere I had noticed the 70-mile blast of air as the airplane pushed its way steadily onward and upward. Naturally, the exhaust of the motor in addition to the roar of the wind made conversation impossible. Some airplanes have telephone communication between observer and pilot. During one flight in a machine not so equipped, the passenger noticed the breaking of some apparatus. Knowing that it was impossible to make himself heard he hastily scribbled the word "Accident!" on a bit of card, whereupon the pilot shut off his engine and glided to earth.
The machine was put through the cloud blanket much as a horse takes a hurdle; it seemed unlike fog and more of a palpable substance. As we emerged, the sun was shining on it like a silvery sea with gently undulating surfaces and it looked for all the world as supportable as layers of cotton-wool. Many times have cloud-banks from mountain tops been observed, yet the upper side of the velo cloud from a flying-machine looked very different. The cloud was only four or five hundred feet thick and extended inland a few miles in irregular outline. The seaward edges of the velo cloud were not ragged, and apparently paralleled the coast for 10 or 15 miles.
Such was the exhilaration and confidence the air gave that I can understand how parachute jumpers confidently step off into space, for to them the air is a supporting medium no more terrible than a transparent sea to a good swimmer. I believe that the record parachute drop was made in 1916 by Colonel Maitland, of the English Royal Flying Corps, who descended in a parachute 10,000 feet from an airplane. Fifteen minutes was occupied in the descent.
The gliding descent was made from an altitude of 2,500 feet, starting above San Diego. As the aviation school was approached, we could see a number of machines in the air, three below and two above us, circling about like hawks. And, like soaring birds, these machines had their air-lanes, designated courses and levels being devoted to the different classes of machines. The landing was made without incident and the hour's flight was ended.
"Clouds of California," Carpenter, 1914, 24, 2d ed., Ft. Leavenworth .
INVESTIGATING THE UPPER AIR
University of California Chronicle, 1915, 17:1-25, Berkeley.
Monthly Weather Review, 1914, 42:410, Washington.
Of especial interest to the aviator is the table on the next page which shows wind velocities increasing with elevation as determined by observations of the Avalon balloons.
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