Read Ebook: The Young Mechanic Containing directions for the use of all kinds of tools and for the construction of steam engines and mechanical models including the art of turning in wood and metal by Lukin James

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I shall now proceed to show you how these joints can be cut at once without the trouble of gauging and measuring to find the proper angle. Therefore I shall let you into the secret of mitring boxes and mitring boards, which, if you had much to do of this kind, would shorten your work considerably.

Fig. 33, A, represents a mitring-board, B a mitring-box. We must go into a little mathematics again, and try to understand these, because, if you do so, you may devise others, occasionally more suitable for any special work you have in hand.

The action of a mitre-block or mitre-box depends upon the principles here laid down, so you see that although few carpenters understand much about mathematics, and simply work as they were taught, without knowing or caring why, those who planned the method of work, and invented mitre-boards and such like devices to shorten work and lessen labour, must have understood a great deal about such things. And so it is generally, as you will find with inventions: things look easy enough, and natural enough, when we see them every day; but it has taken a great deal of thought and sound knowledge to invent them in the first place, and a great deal of practical experience to construct them so neatly. Even a common pin goes through such a number of processes as would surprise you, if you have never been able to see them made.

The mitre-box, Fig. 33, B, is on precisely the same principle, but is chiefly used to cut narrow strips not over 2 inches wide; it should be neatly made of mahogany, half an inch thick. There is also generally made a saw-cut straight across, at right angles to the length of the box or board, which is convenient in sawing across such strips of wood, as it saves the necessity of marking lines against the edge of the square: of course, it is specially used where a large number of strips have to be cut square across. In all these you observe one saw-cut leaning to the right, the other to the left. This is necessary when picture-frames or moulded pieces have to be cut to 45?, because you cannot, of course, turn such pieces over and use either side, which you can do when the piece has no such mouldings.

Several modifications exist of mitring-boards; some arranged for sawing, and some for planing; and where thousands of frames have to be cheaply made, the angles are cut off with circular saws, of which I need not speak particularly here, but which I shall probably have to describe in a future page. In Fig. 34, K, I have shown one corner of a simple picture-frame, covered with what is called rustic work, that is--short pieces of oak, ash, or other wood cut from the tree, left with the bark on, or peeled and varnished. These are nailed on with small brads; and, if well assorted and arranged, this will have a very neat appearance, suiting well for rooms fitted up in oak, as many studies and libraries are. In picture-frames, however, a rebate has to be made at the back, like L, in which the picture with its glass and back-board has to rest; and this requires a special plane. The front also is always either sloped off or moulded. I shall therefore make this kind of work the subject of my next chapter, and describe the operations of rebating, grooving, tongueing, and moulding.

These operations, which are frequently required in carpentry, are done on a small scale by planes. On a larger scale, circular saws and other machinery are widely and extensively made use of for the same purpose, as being much more rapid and economical. Of course, the young mechanic will employ the more usual method, and the present chapter will therefore treat of the planes necessary for the above work, and the method of using them.

The common rebate or rabbit plane comes first. This is of various widths; an inch being a very useful size. It is different in many respects from the smoothing-plane, being made with a single iron only, which is so arranged as to reach into angular recesses, which could not be touched by the ordinary plane, of which the iron does not extend quite to either side of the sole. Fig. 35, A and B, will illustrate this. A represents the plane as seen from above and at one side, B gives the perspective view of the sole, C represents the iron, D the wedge. Let us suppose a rebate required upon a strip 1 inch thick, the same to be half an inch wide and deep. A gauge is first set to the required distance, and a line is marked on both faces, as a guide for the action of the plane. After a little practice it will be found easy to guide the entry of the plane with the left hand, grasping it so as partly to overlap the sole, and thus determine the width of the cut, which must not at first be carried to the full width required, but may be brought within an eighth of an inch of such gauge line, and the material removed sometimes from one face of the rebate and sometimes from the other, taking care to keep it nicely square.

At first it is an easier plan to nail on with brads a strip of wood accurately planed, which in this case, as the sole of the plane is 1 inch wide, must cover it from end to end to a width of half an inch. This will prevent the possibility of going too deep into cut, and insure the correctness of the rebate, Fig. 35, H. The injury to the sole will not be great if small brads are used, but at the same time it is better to learn the art of using the hand as a guide, which is the more general method of the working carpenter. As for the use of rebates, there are few pieces of cabinet-work or joinery in which they are not found, and as stated in the previous chapter, no picture-frame can be made without them. The shavings which escape from the rebate-frame do not rise out of the top, as in the smoothing-plane, but from the side, which is hollowed out for the purpose, as seen in the drawing.

The skew rebate-plane is made like the preceding one, but the iron, instead of standing at right angles to the sides, is placed at an angle. With this you can plane across the grain of the wood.

The next plane to be noticed, is that with which grooves are cut, such as you will often see in the sides of book-shelves, in which the several shelves slide. The same is done where two boards are to be joined lengthwise, and there is danger of their becoming separated as the wood shrinks in drying. The panels of doors, too, are slid into similar grooves in the styles and rails of the framework, and there are innumerable other cases in which this mode of work is carried out. These grooves are generally cut with the plough, a curious-looking tool, by no means like a plane in appearance, but of great use to the carpenter. Of course, we require various widths of such grooves, according to the special purpose intended, and these are determined by various widths of the cutting irons, which, however, all fix into the same stock; a dozen or more of such irons are sold with a single plane.

Fig. 37 is such a cabinet, with six drawers, dovetailed at the corners as usual. The bottom, however, projects beyond the sides, so that the latter are not made lower than the back, as was the case with the table-drawer previously described. The top and sides may be of mahogany, the back and bottom of pine , or if cost is an object, the whole may be of any other wood; but the grooves in which the drawers slide, can be cut more sharply and neatly in harder wood than pine--birch, for instance, which is very fit for the purpose, and will take a good polish. The outer case is first made like an open box. The dimensions may be regulated according to the intended use, but generally the drawers increase in depth downwards. The top and bottom overlap the sides, the latter to a somewhat greater width than the former. The sides can therefore only be dovetailed to the back; the bottom may be attached with screws, and the top likewise, but the holes must then be plugged to conceal them. If the whole is of deal, and to be painted or veneered, this would be the best plan; but if the top is of mahogany, it is not so easy to fill up the holes above the heads of the screws so as to thoroughly conceal them. If, however, you have no plough to cut a groove to let the sides and back a little way into the top, glue alone will not hold sufficiently. In this case smaller holes may be made to admit 2-inch brads to assist the glue, such holes being easily filled with putty stained to imitate mahogany.

In the grooves thus cut, the projecting part of the bottom of the drawers is made to fit and slide, and they will run more smoothly if cut so that the grain of the wood shall run across the bottom, from front to back, and not from side to side. The bottom of the drawer must not come below the level of the front, but either the front should be rebated to take one edge of it, as seen at E, which is the best way, or a slip of wood should be glued along as at F, on which that edge may rest, and to which it can be attached. D exhibits this distinctly, as it is drawn as if the nearest end was removed to show the position of the other parts. The bottom, therefore, will be let into the front, and nailed under the back and sides, and will project rather less than half an inch each way, to fit the grooves in which it is to slide. Another way to effect the same is to make the drawers as usual, with no such projections, and to nail a strip to run in the grooves in the middle of the side pieces, or, if preferred, near the top. The effect is, of course, the same, and such strips being planed up nicely, with the grain running lengthwise, will cause the drawers to work in and out very smoothly.

There is no neater way than this to make a cabinet; and sometimes the whole is closed with a panelled door, for which purpose the case is left to project beyond the drawers. Unless well supplied in the matter of planes, which is hardly to be expected, you will not be able to cut the grooves in the side of the outer case in any way but the following, which, however, will answer very well when the piece in which they are to be cut is not above 9 inches or 1 foot wide. Mark out the places, spacing them with the greatest care, and cut just within the lines with a tenon-saw; then cut out with a chisel the narrow piece which intervenes. There is a plane called a routing-plane used for this by cabinetmakers and joiners, but you may as well exercise your ingenuity to do without it. If you have a plough, you may remove the fence, and let it follow up the saw and chisel, but it will be hardly required if you use the chisel carefully.

I have given descriptions of these planes, although the young mechanic will not at first possess them, as they are somewhat expensive, because I feel it as well to let him know how work is done by the trade, and why it is that such work is effected more rapidly and better than he himself can do it; but at the same time it is far better that he should, for a long time, work at a disadvantage, by using few tools, and those of the simplest construction, before taking in hand others which cost a good deal of money, which might often be better spent. A look back over these pages will show that with a long plane, a smoothing-plane and a rebate-plane, all the work previously alluded to can be done. As, however, I am writing upon the subject of planes, I may as well mention two more--match-planes and beading-planes--to which may be added those for moulding, being an extension only of the last named. Match-planes are always in pairs. Their use is to cut, the one a groove, Fig. 39, A, the other a tenon or tongue, or feather, as it is sometimes called, as Fig. 39, B, down the long sides of boards that are to be joined lengthwise . If the plough is used, a groove is cut in both pieces, and a slip of board planed up to fit them; either method will answer equally well. When boards joined thus shrink, the tongue or slip fills up space.

There is no necessity for illustrating the planes used for beading and moulding after the description already given of others. The irons, instead of being flat, are filed into grooves and hollows of the required pattern, and of course transfer their own form to the wood upon which they are used. They are held on the slope of the moulding to be cut. When blunt, they have to be sharpened with slips of oilstone, which can be had for the purpose, of square and round section; sometimes they are sufficiently soft to be filed into shape, but a keen edge cannot thus be obtained. Mouldings, however, are generally finished off with fine sandpaper. They are always planed lengthwise of the grain in long strips, and are cut to the required lengths . When very broad, they are made up of several narrower ones, glued side by side. The young mechanic had better get them cut for him by some friendly carpenter, as it is hardly worth his while to buy planes for which he will have comparatively little use.

I shall conclude these papers on carpentry by describing the method of making such a door as would suit the cabinet already described, especially as it will explain the way in which all panelling is done, whether for doors, shutters, or other similar articles. Panelling is indeed of very general application in every household, and it is well worth while even for the young mechanic to learn how it is accomplished. It is absolutely necessary, however, that he should be possessed either of a plough or match-planes for routing out the grooves in which the panels slide.

Nearly all panels have a beading or a moulding running round them as a finish.

Fig. 40 illustrates the method of panelling. A, B, C are the styles, D, E, F, G the rails. The mortices and tenons are cut as usual. The inside edges of C, B, D, G are then grooved with the plough, and both edges of the other pieces. The panels are carefully squared up, and then bevelled off at the edges so as to fit the grooves. To put such a door together, A, D, G, E, and F would be first arranged, then the panels slid in from the outside, and afterwards the styles B and C put in place. The part beyond the outer mortices in the latter pieces, which are left for safety in cutting these mortices, and to prevent splitting when D and G are driven home, are not cut off until the glue is dry. The process is simple, but it requires great care, both in setting out the various measurements, and in squaring up the different pieces composing the whole. After the whole is dry, strips of moulding, cut to mitre-joints at the corners, are nailed on with brads round the panels to give the whole a finished appearance.

There are a number of useful and ornamental articles which cannot be made with the carpenter's tools alone, but which need a lathe for their construction. Wooden boxes of circular section, wooden and metal wheels and pulleys, ornamental chair and table legs, and a countless number of similar articles, all depend upon the skill of the turner. Models too of engines and machinery of all sizes and shapes, bring the lathe into constant requisition.

No one can say to whom this machine is to be attributed. Probably it has been developed by slow and imperceptible steps, from the potter's wheel to its present elaborate and perfect form. As for the part that old Daedalus had in it, I believe he had just as much to do with it as he had with the saw, which he is said to have invented from seeing the backbone of a fish. Now, the backbone of a fish is not a bit like a saw, but the jaw of a shark is, and very quickly it amputates legs, arms, and heads, when unfortunately the chance is given to it. We need not, however, stay to discuss this unimportant point; we will leave it to the researches of the Antediluvian Society, or Noahican Brethren, or any other known or unknown learned body, and proceed to consider the lathe as it is now generally constructed--the ambition of boys, the delight of adult possessors, and, to the writer, "gem of gems!"

At the very time I write, I am engaged in fitting up two lathes; one of which is for just such a "young mechanic" as this book is intended to instruct. The bed will be of dry hard beech, the fly-wheel of iron turned up with five grooves or speeds, as they are called. The heads, which are the only really important part, are to be made by a well-known London maker, whose work is sure to be the best possible at the price afforded. Nevertheless, this lathe will cost several pounds, although it is to be fitted for hand-turning only, and it is possible in London to find a much cheaper article.

When I was myself a "young mechanic," so many years ago that I find I do not quite like to count them, I had a lathe at ?2, rather shaky, wooden fly-wheel, wooden head--not at all the thing to recommend. Then I had another made by a gunsmith--all iron--for it was what is called a triangle-bar lathe; the bed being a bar of triangular section, on which the heads or poppits slid, and also the rest. I think now it was not a bad lathe; but I am afraid the work I did on it was scarcely first-class; and I sold the machine one fine day under the impression that if I had a better I should do better work. This, however, proved a terrible fallacy; so I set myself upon high as a warning to young mechanics, who always fancy that their clumsy, bad work is due to some fault in their tools, whereas, after all, it is generally their own.

Well, I had a succession of lathes, after that triangle-bar one had passed into oblivion, by various makers; some good, some indifferent, some for heavy, and some for light work; and I fancy I am now fairly able to give an opinion upon the merits or demerits of any particular lathe which may come under my notice.

I suppose, however, I must give some idea of cost, if only as a partial guide; but all depends upon the special object for which the lathe is to be used. If for models, for instance, it would not be so expensive as if it was desired for elaborate ornamental work in wood or ivory, when the young mechanic has grown whiskers, and become an adult enthusiast at this delightful recreation. For there are all kinds of lathes to be had; some that will answer well for beginners, and for rough work in after years; some beautifully finished, intended to be used first for simple hand-turning, but which are of best construction, and therefore worth adding to from time to time; and if carefully used, will descend in good order from father to son. Then there are lathes for heavier work, and for screw cutting and engine making, fit for engineers; and others of minute size and exquisite finish, adapted to the special requirements of watch and clock makers--lathes you could put in your waistcoat pocket.

You can get a lathe for about to , with iron bed complete; and I really think it impossible to obtain a cheaper one. Of course it will be small, and of the plainest possible construction. It will, nevertheless, answer for light work in wood and metal, being designed to assist the young mechanic in making model engines and similar curiosities. From this you may go, pound by pound, to good, serviceable tools; and these to a ?300 lathe for rose engine-work, and elaborate ornamentation in ivory and other costly materials. Most probably I shall be able to give you a catalogue or two at the end of this book, published by makers of such lathes, and you can then judge of the probable cost of your workshop. The drawing of the lathe will be readily understood even by those boys who have had no opportunity of seeing any work of this kind. There are, however, few towns or villages in which a lathe does not exist, and may not be examined by any boy who desires to learn its construction and use. Its object is to give rotary movement to any material it is desired to form into a circular or cylindrical shape.

If the construction of the lathe itself is understood, the first consideration is what tools and chucks are necessary. I shall speak of the latter first, as little or nothing can be done without them. First comes the prong-chuck, for soft wood . This, like all others, is made to screw upon the mandrel. Its use is to hold one end of any piece of wood while the other is supported by the point, E, of the poppit, H, which poppit can be moved at pleasure along the lathe-bed, and fixed at any given place by a hand-nut below. The point itself can be advanced or drawn back by turning the handle, K. A piece of wood thus mounted must of necessity revolve with the mandrel, because, although it can and will turn round upon the point of the back poppit, it cannot do so upon the fork or prong, which enters and holds it securely. This chuck, or one of the same nature, is always used for cylinders of soft wood, which can be supported at both ends, such as tool-handles, chair-legs, and other work not requiring to be hollowed out.

It sometimes happens, however, especially if the work is at all rough, or considerably out of truth, that the piece slips round upon the fork or prong, especially if it does not enter deeply enough; and in addition, tool-handles and round rulers, and many articles that have to be similarly supported at both ends, are made of hard wood, into which this prong will not readily enter.

The next chuck is equally necessary . It is a taper screw of steel, fixed in a socket which can be attached to the mandrel. Two sizes of this chuck would be useful for a large lathe, but for such a one as will probably be purchased by the young amateur, one only, with a screw of medium size, will suffice. The use of this chuck is to hold pieces which only require to be supported at one end, so that a tool can be used to work upon the other, either to mould it into the required form, or to hollow it out for a box or bowl. Of course you might screw such work on the mandrel-nose itself, but it would make a very large hole in the end, whereas this taper screw only requires a moderately sized gimlet-hole. It is therefore a much more convenient way of attaching work to the mandrel, and is of extensive use.

The cup-chuck is the last required. It is sketched at P, and is sometimes of iron, but generally of brass. There are several sizes made and sold with lathes, but you need not have at most more than one or two, as I shall show you how to make wooden ones, which answer as well, if not better. The flat plates, R, R?, can scarcely be called chucks, but they generally come into the list of such. The latter has five projecting points, which, sticking into such a thing as a flat-board , hold it sufficiently firm when the back centre is brought up against the other side of the piece, to allow of its being turned. The other is merely a flat plate with holes in it, through which screws can be passed from behind into any odd bit of wood of 2 or 3 inches in thickness, whereby a chuck can be quickly made to suit any required purpose. Two or three of these would be convenient, one of which should be nearly as large as the lathe will carry; and in this one a great many holes and slots should be made. This is called a face-plate, and, in addition to the ordinary screws, whereby pieces of wood are attached to it, it is fitted with clamps and bolts of various forms, for the purpose of holding securely upon its face all kinds of flat works in wood or metal,--such as cog-wheels, which have to be bored out and faced. The young model-maker will find a face-plate of great service. The larger one should be of iron, as it will be cheaper than brass.

We now pass on to chucks for metal turning. These are of various shapes. First in order comes the centre chuck and dog, for holding rods of iron which can be supported at both ends. The commonest form is represented in Fig. 41, S, T. S is such a face-plate almost as I have described, but it has a pin projecting from it, and also a steel centre-point. The latter is often made to screw out and in, which is the best plan. The pin can be slid to any point in the face-plate, and clamped by a nut at the back. T is called a dog, and of these two at least will be required, if the young mechanic intends to work in metal.

Supposing the rod to be thus bored at each end, place the centre-chuck upon the mandrel, instead of the drill-chuck, and mount the bar between this and the point of the back-centre. Thus placed, it will be accurately supported, but if the lathe is put in motion, it will not turn round. Now come into use the little dogs. Remove the bar, and choosing a dog of which the open part is tolerably near the size of it, slip it over the end about half an inch, and there fix it by tightening the little screw, which, you observe, will drive the bar as far as possible towards the smaller part of the opening, and when it can go no farther, will secure it as in a vice. It is a good plan to file a slight flat upon the bar, just where the screw of the carrier will come. Now replace the bar, and when the lathe is put in motion, the tail of the carrier should come against the projecting pin in the face of the face-plate, which will compel the iron to go round with it. This is the way all bars of metal are mounted. I shall not tell you yet how they are to be turned, because this would interfere with the order of my description.

The chucks then absolutely necessary are these--

Now as to tools. Their name is legion--tools for iron, brass, ivory, hard and soft wood; and many an odd shilling will be well laid out from time to time in adding to the stock. Happily those most needed are not costly--about a dozen without handles, which latter may be had at 10 cents each and upwards, according to the material and finish, all with iron or brass ferules, so necessary to prevent splitting. You may buy your first few simple tools handled, but after you have these you can turn as many handles as you like, and you can buy ferules of all sizes at any regular tool-shop.

I may as well tell you that in a great many country towns you will be unable to obtain turning tools except gouges and chisels, so that when you buy your lathe in London, as you will find the best plan , you must lay in a little stock of tools at the same time, and take future opportunities of getting more. In regular tool-shops you will have them laid before you by dozens of every conceivable shape and size, so that your great difficulty would be what to pick out if it were not for some such directions as I am now about to give you.

First, you will want gouges and chisels. Begin with two sizes of each--one of half an inch, the other of 1 inch in width. These are to be mounted in long handles.

Now, with these alone you can do all the plain work in soft wood which does not require to be hollowed out, tool-handles, chair-legs, legs of towel-horses, round rulers, and all sorts of things, and to a certain extent you can turn out the insides of wooden chucks, bowls, and boxes, but not very easily with these alone. Hence you must add some of those shown in Fig. 42. These I shall endeavour to assort as follows:--

A to F are for hollowing out hard woods; G and H are hook-tools for hollowing out soft wood boxes and bowls.

I and K show the edge and side of a parting tool for cutting off the ends of cylindrical pieces, separating the turned from the unturned parts, and for all similar work.

M is a hook or heel tool, made sometimes with a flat edge and sometimes with a rounded one, the latter being most useful. It is a very powerful tool, much used by some, especially for heavy work--I don't think you need get one at present. If I am able to teach you to use a graver it will do almost as much work, and is a neater tool. If you use a tool of the nature of heel-tools at all, I think, on the whole, the nail-head tool, N, either round or square, is the best. It is at all events handy for roughing down work, and when it is reduced nearly to the size required, and is partly smoothed, the graver will finish it.

O is an inside tool for hollowing out iron. There are different shapes of this used, each turner giving the preference to some particular pattern to which he has habituated himself. None of these tools for metal have sharp edges--at least they would not appear so to an ordinary observer. The angle of the edge is 60? to 80?, or even 90?, which is, as you know, a right angle, and is that most generally used for the cutting edges of tools intended for brass, as U, V, W, of which V is a most useful pattern. Those for hard wood have edges a little more keen, but after all they scrape rather than cut; the only tools for wood with keen edges being the gouge and chisel.

S is the turner's square. The blade slides stiffly and accurately in a slot in the brass, being kept by a spring at one side from working loose. This square is used to gauge the depth of boxes and other works which are to be turned to an exact size, and it also serves to test the squareness of many kinds of work. Suppose, for instance, you had turned a box, you would put the blade of this tool against the bottom and press upon it till the brass rested across the rim, touching it in two opposite places. Now possibly the inside may be smaller at the bottom than at the top. Test it by bringing the steel blade edgewise against it. You will see whether the brass still touches in two places across the mouth of the box. The squareness of the outside with the top or bottom can be tested in a similar way. We shall have occasion to recur to this when we come to boring and fitting engine cylinders.

S? is another small square, which is often serviceable where the carpenter's square cannot be used. If you intend to make models, you will want both of these; at the same time, it is quite possible to make the latter of iron, or even thick tin, if you have the former, as an accurate guide to work by.

T represents a pair of spring-compasses or callipers. They are used to set off distances, and have the advantage of not being liable to shift their position when once they are set to any required width. You will require a pair of compasses of some sort, and if not already provided, these are the best you can have.

There are many other tools, which, though not absolutely turning tools, are more or less used in connection with the lathe, but these need not now be further alluded to, and I shall go on to describe as clearly as possible the method of working at the lathe with hand-tools, commencing with the operation of turning soft wood with the gouge and chisel; but I must first give a short chapter upon the nature of woods used.

The young mechanic has most likely hitherto considered all wood under one head; but there is a vast difference, nevertheless, in the internal structure, even of such kinds as grow in England; and the woods of foreign countries differ again from these, some being of such close texture that it is almost impossible to work them with ordinary tools, and some being little else than gigantic ferns, and in structure like that much-dreaded implement of flagellation--the schoolmaster's cane.

In England the hardest wood found is that of the box-tree, the chief place of which is in Surrey, at Box Hill; it is, nevertheless, found scattered here and there in all parts of the country, but not generally of a size greater than 3 inches in diameter. It is of very slow growth, and our own country would not nearly satisfy the demand made for it by various trades. Hence a large quantity of box, of larger growth, and generally of harder and better quality, is imported every year from Turkey, to be used in the construction of blocks for engravers, who alone require many tons weight annually, and for carpenters' rules, mallets, turned boxes, and tool-handles; to which I may add the important item of peg-tops. I fear some of my readers may think I should have placed these first on the list! Opinions, however, I imagine, differ in this particular, as in most others, and upon all subjects.

The grain of boxwood is so close and even that it is one of the most valuable turning materials we possess. It takes excellent screw-threads, provided they are not too fine; is a very general material for boxes of all kinds, and also for chucks, although there is really no reason why it should be wasted in so applying it, when other woods of less value make such efficient substitutes. Probably its use for this purpose arose from the facility with which a screw can be cut in it to fit that on the mandrel, and that it is so hard as not to allow the collar beyond the screw to make much impression upon it. In consequence, when it is well fitted, such a chuck can be screwed on many times exactly to the same point, and will continue to run true. But I myself have found that if the mandrel-screw is not very coarse, the threads cut in the inside of the chuck are apt to break off.

Somewhat similar in texture, though by no means generally used, is the wood of the ELDER, which is quite different, be it observed, from the ALDER, although I often hear the names confounded together. The wood I allude to is that of the tree which bears umbels of sweet, white blossoms, which give place to those jet-black berries we find upon them late in summer, and which are made into elder-wine, for home consumption at Christmas, when, no doubt, most of my readers have drunk it, hot and spicy and sugary, to keep out the wintry cold. From the same tree are commonly made those harmless engines of mimic warfare--pop-guns!

If it were not for the presence of the pith, which is in fact the very quality which makes it valuable to boys for the latter purpose, this wood would certainly have been eagerly seized upon by turners. Even with this defect, it is used instead of box for the inferior kinds of carpenter's rules and other purposes, and the larger pieces will make very good chucks, if a little care is exercised to prevent splitting them. It is indeed a wood that might be far more extensively used in this way than it is.

The YEW, perhaps, should come next in order, for this too is very close-grained and very beautiful, and when highly polished it will bear comparison with many foreign woods which we import at a high price; it is, however, brittle and apt to splinter.

I cannot call to mind any English wood but box that can be turned by a chisel held so as to scrape it, but the greater number of foreign woods are always turned in this manner, being hard and close in the grain.

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