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FIRST PERIOD OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT -- SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF THEBES.

State of Greece at Alexander's accession -- dependence on the Macedonian kings. -- Unwilling subjection of the Greeks -- influence of Grecian intelligence on Macedonia. -- Basis of Alexander's character -- not Hellenic. -- Boyhood and Education of Alexander. -- He receives instruction from Aristotle. -- Early political action and maturity of Alexander -- his quarrels with his father. Family discord. -- Uncertainty of Alexander's position during the last year of Philip. -- Impression produced by the sudden death of Philip. -- Accession of Alexander -- his energy and judgment. -- Accomplices of Pausanias are slain by Alexander -- Amyntas and others are slain by him also. -- Sentiment at Athens on the death of Philip -- language of Demosthenes -- inclination to resist Macedonia, yet without overt act. -- Discontent in Greece -- but no positive movement. -- March of Alexander into Greece -- submission of Athens. -- Alexander is chosen Imperator of the Greeks in the convention at Corinth -- continued refusal of concurrence by Sparta. -- Conditions of the vote thus passed -- privileges granted to the cities. -- Authority claimed by Alexander under the convention -- degradation of the leading Grecian states. -- Encroachments and tyranny of the Macedonian officers in Greece -- complaints of the orators at Athens. -- Violations of the convention at sea by Macedonian officers. -- Language of the complaining Athenians -- they insist only on strict observance of the convention. Boldness of their language. -- Encouragements held out by Persia to the Greeks. -- Correspondence of Demosthenes with Persia -- justifiable and politic. -- March of Alexander into Thrace. He forces his way over Mount Haemus. -- His victory over the Triballi. -- He crosses the Danube, defeats the Getae, and returns back. -- Embassy of Gauls to Alexander. His self-conceit. -- Victories of Alexander over Kleitus and the Illyrians. -- The Thebans declare their independence against Macedonia. -- They are encouraged by Alexander's long absence in Thrace, and by reports of his death. -- The Theban exiles from Athens get possession of Thebes. -- They besiege the Macedonians in the Kadmeia, and entreat aid from other Greeks. Favorable sympathies shown towards them, but no positive aid. -- Chances of Thebes and liberation, not unfavorable. -- Rapid march and unexpected arrival of Alexander with his army before Thebes. His good fortune as to the time of hearing the news. -- Siege of Thebes. Proclamation of Alexander. Determination of the Thebans to resist. -- Capture of Thebes by assault. Massacre of the population. -- Thebes is razed; the Theban captives sold as slaves; the territory distributed among the neighboring cities. -- The Kadmeia is occupied as a Macedonian Military post. Retribution upon the Thebans from Orchomenus and Plataea. -- Sentiments of Alexander, at the time and afterwards, respecting the destruction of Thebes. -- Extreme terror spread throughout Greece. Sympathy of the Athenians towards the Theban exiles. -- Alexander demands the surrender of the chief anti-Macedonian leaders at Athens. Memorable debate at Athens. The demand refused. -- Embassy of the Athenians to Alexander. He is persuaded to acquiesce in the refusal, and to be satisfied with the banishment of Charidemus and Ephialtes. -- Influence of Phokion in obtaining these milder terms -- his increased ascendency at Athens. -- Alexander at Corinth -- obedience of the Grecian synod -- interview with the philosopher Diogenes. -- Reconstitution of Orchomenus and Plataea. Return of Alexander to Pella. -- Military operations of Parmenio in Asia Minor against Memnon. 1-49

ASIATIC CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDER.

During Alexander's reign, the history of Greece is nearly a blank. To what extent the Asiatic projects of Alexander belonged to Grecian history. -- Pan-hellenic pretences set up by Alexander. The real feeling of the Greeks was adverse to his success. -- Analogy of Alexander's relation to the Greeks -- with those of the Emperor Napoleon to the Confederation of the Rhine. -- Greece an appendage, but a valuable appendage, to Macedonia. -- Extraordinary military endowments and capacity of Alexander. -- Changes in Grecian warfare, antecedent and contributory to the military organization of Macedonia. -- Macedonian military condition before Philip. Good and firm cavalry: poor infantry. -- Philip re-arms and reorganizes the infantry. Long Macedonian pike or sarissa. -- Macedonian phalanx -- how armed and arrayed. -- It was originally destined to contend against the Grecian hoplites as organized by Epaminondas. -- Regiments and divisions of the phalanx -- heavy-armed infantry. -- Light infantry of the line -- Hypaspistae, or Guards. -- Light troops generally -- mostly foreigners. -- Macedonian cavalry -- its excellence -- how regimented. -- The select Macedonian Body-guards. The Royal Pages. -- Foreign auxiliaries -- Grecian hoplites -- Thessalian cavalry -- Paeonians -- Illyrians -- Thracians, etc. -- Magazines, war-office, and dep?t, at Pella. -- Macedonian aptitudes -- purely military -- military pride stood to them in lieu of national sentiment. -- Measures of Alexander previous to his departure for Asia. Antipater left as viceroy at Pella. -- March of Alexander to the Hellespont. Passage across to Asia. -- Visit of Alexander to Ilium. -- Analogy of Alexander to the Greek heroes. -- Review and total of the Macedonian army in Asia. -- Chief Macedonian officers. -- Greeks in Alexander's service -- Eumenes of Kardia. -- Persian forces -- Mentor and Memnon the Rhodians. -- Succession of the Persian crown -- Ochus -- Darius Codomannus. -- Preparations of Darius for defence. -- Operations of Memnon before Alexander's arrival. -- Superiority of the Persians at sea: their imprudence in letting Alexander cross the Hellespont unopposed. -- Persian force assembled in Phrygia, under Arsites and others. -- Advice of Memnon, to avoid fighting on land, and to employ the fleet for aggressive warfare in Macedonia and Greece. -- Arsites rejects Memnon's advice, and determines to fight. -- The Persians take post on the river Granikus. -- Alexander reaches the Granikus, and resolves to force the passage at once, in spite of the dissuasion of Permenio. -- Disposition of the two armies. -- Battle of the Granikus. -- Cavalry battle. -- Personal danger of Alexander. His life saved by Kleitus. Complete victory of Alexander. Destruction of the Grecian infantry on the side of the Persians. -- Loss of the Persians -- numbers of their leading men slain. -- Small loss of the Macedonians. -- Alexander's kindness to his wounded soldiers, and severe treatment of the Grecian prisoners. -- Unskilfulness of the Persian leaders. Immense impression produced by Alexander's victory. -- Terror and submission of the Asiatics to Alexander. Surrender of the strong fortress of Sardis. -- He marches from Sardis to the coast. Capture of Ephesus. -- He finds the first resistance at Miletus. -- Near approach of the Persian fleet. Memnon is made commander-in-chief of the Persians. -- The Macedonian fleet occupies the harbor of Miletus, and keeps out the Persians. Alexander declines naval combat. His debate with Parmenio. -- Alexander besieges Miletus. Capture of the city. -- The Persian fleet retires to Halikarnassus. Alexander disbands his own fleet. -- March of Alexander to Halikarnassus. Ada queen of Karia joins him. Strong garrison, and good defensive preparation, at Halikarnassus. -- Siege of Halikarnassus. Bravery of the garrison, under Ephialtes the Athenian. -- Desperate sally of Ephialtes -- at first successful, but repulsed -- he himself is slain. -- Memnon is forced to abandon Halikarnassus, and withdraw the garrison by sea, retaining only the citadel. Alexander enters Halikarnassus. -- Winter campaign of Alexander along the southern coast of Asia Minor. -- Alexander concludes his winter campaign at Gordium. Capture of Kelaenae. -- Appendix on the Macedonian Sarissa. 49-104

SECOND AND THIRD ASIATIC CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDER -- BATTLE OF ISSUS -- SIEGE OF TYRE.

Alexander cuts the Gordian knot. -- He refuses the liberation of the Athenian prisoners. -- Progress of Memnon and the Persian fleet -- they acquire Chios and a large part of Lesbos -- they besiege Mitylene. Death of Memnon. Capture of Mitylene. -- Hopes excited in Greece by the Persian fleet, but ruined by the death of Memnon. -- Memnon's death an irreparable mischief to Darius. -- Change in Darius's plan caused by this event. He resolves to take the offensive on land. His immense land-force. -- Free speech and sound judgment of Charidemus. He is put to death by Darius. -- Darius abandoned Memnon's plans, just at the time when he had the best defensive position for executing them with effect. -- Darius recalls the Grecian mercenaries from the fleet. -- Criticism of Arrian on Darius's plan. -- March of Alexander from Gordium through Paphlagonia and Kappadokia. -- He arrives at the line of Mount Taurus -- difficulties of the pass. -- Conduct of Arsames, the Persian satrap. Alexander passes Mount Taurus without the least resistance. He enters Tarsus. -- Dangerous illness of Alexander. His confidence in the physician Philippus, who cures him. -- Operations of Alexander in Kilikia. -- March of Alexander out of Kilikia, through Issus, to Myriandrus. -- March of Darius from the interior to the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Immense numbers of his army: great wealth and ostentation in it: the treasure and baggage sent to Damascus. -- Position of Darius on the plain eastward of Mount Amanus. He throws open the mountain passes, to let Alexander come through and fight a pitched battle. -- Impatience of Darius at the delay of Alexander in Kilikia. He crosses Mount Amanus to attack Alexander in the defiles of Kilikia. -- He arrives in Alexander's rear, and captures Issus. -- Return of Alexander from Myriandrus: his address to his army. -- Position of the Macedonian army south of the river Pinarus. -- Position of the Persian army north of the Pinarus. -- Battle of Issus. -- Alarm and immediate flight of Darius -- defeat of the Persians. -- Vigorous and destructive pursuit by Alexander -- capture of the mother and wife of Darius. -- Courteous treatment of the regal female prisoners by Alexander. -- Complete dispersion of the Persian army -- Darius recrosses the Euphrates -- escape of some Perso-Grecian mercenaries. -- Prodigious effect produced by the victory of Issus. -- Effects produced in Greece by the battle of Issus. Anti-Macedonian projects crushed. -- Capture of Damascus by the Macedonians, with the Persian treasure and prisoners. Capture and treatment of the Athenian Iphikrates. Altered relative position of Greeks and Macedonians. -- Alexander in Phenicia. Aradus, Byblus, and Sidon open their gates to him. -- Letter of Darius soliciting peace and the restitution of the regal captives. Haughty reply of Alexander. -- Importance of the voluntary surrender of the Phenician towns to Alexander. -- Alexander appears before Tyre -- readiness of the Tyrians to surrender, yet not without a point reserved -- he determines to besiege the city. -- Exorbitant dispositions and conduct of Alexander. -- He prepares to besiege Tyre -- situation of the place. -- Chances of the Tyrians -- their resolution not unreasonable. -- Alexander constructs a mole across the strait between Tyre and the mainland. The project is defeated. -- Surrender of the princes of Cyprus to Alexander -- He gets hold of the main Phenician and Cyprian fleet. -- He appears before Tyre with a numerous fleet, and blocks up the place by sea. -- Capture of Tyre by storm -- desperate resistance by the citizens. -- Surviving males, 2000 in number, hanged by order of Alexander -- The remaining captives sold. -- Duration of the siege for seven months. Sacrifice of Alexander to Herakles. -- Second letter from Darius to Alexander, who requires unconditional submission. -- The Macedonian fleet overpowers the Persian and becomes master of the AEgean with the islands. -- March of Alexander towards Egypt -- siege of Gaza. -- His first assaults fail -- he is wounded -- he erects an immense mound round the town. -- Gaza is taken by storm, after a siege of two months. -- The garrison are all slain, except the governor Batis, who becomes prisoner, severely wounded. -- Wrath of Alexander against Batis, whom he causes to be tied to a chariot, and dragged round the town. -- Alexander enters Egypt, and occupies it without resistance -- He determines on founding Alexandria. -- His visit to the temple and oracle of Ammon. The oracle proclaims him to be the son of Zeus. -- Arrangements made by Alexander at Memphis. -- Grecian prisoners brought from the AEgean. -- He proceeds to Phenicia -- message from Athens. Splendid festivals. Reinforcements sent to Antipater. -- He marches to the Euphrates -- crosses it without opposition at Thapsakus. -- March across from the Euphrates to the Tigris. Alexander fords the Tigris above Nineveh, without resistance. -- Eclipse of the moon. Alexander approaches near the army of Darius in position. -- Inaction of Darius since the defeat at Issus. -- Paralyzing effect upon him produced by the captivity of his mother and wife. -- Good treatment of the captive females by Alexander -- necessary to keep up their value as hostages. -- Immense army collected by Darius, in the plains eastward of the Tigris -- near Arbela. -- He fixes the spot for encamping and awaiting the attack of Alexander -- in a level plain near Gaugamela. -- His equipment and preparation -- better arms -- numerous scythed chariots -- elephants. -- Position and battle array of Darius. -- Preliminary movements of Alexander -- discussions with Parmenio and other officers. His careful reconnoitring in person. -- Dispositions of Alexander for the attack -- array of the troops. -- Battle of Arbela. -- Cowardice of Darius -- he sets the example of flight -- defeat of the Persians. -- Combat on the Persian right between Mazaeus and Parmenio. Flight of the Persian host -- energetic pursuit by Alexander. -- Escape of Darius. Capture of the Persian camp, and of Arbela. -- Loss in the battle. Completeness of the victory. Entire and irreparable dispersion of the Persian army. -- Causes of the defeat -- cowardice of Darius. Uselessness of his immense numbers. -- Generalship of Alexander. -- Surrender of Babylon and Susa, the two great capitals of Persia. Alexander enters Babylon. Immense treasures acquired in both places. -- Alexander acts as king of Persia, and nominates satraps. He marches to Susa. He remodels the divisions of his army. -- Alexander marches into Persis proper -- he conquers the refractory Uxii, in the intermediate mountains. -- Difficult pass called the Susian Gates, on the way to Persepolis. Ariobarzanes the satrap repulses Alexander, who finds means to turn the pass, and conquer it. -- Alexander enters Persepolis. Mutilated Grecian captives. -- Immense wealth, and national monuments of every sort, accumulated in Persepolis. -- Alexander appropriates and carries away the regal treasures, and then gives up Persepolis to be plundered and burnt by the soldiers. -- Alexander rests his troops, and employs himself in conquering the rest of Persis. -- Darius a fugitive in Media. 104-178

MILITARY OPERATIONS AND CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER, AFTER HIS WINTER QUARTERS IN PERSIS, DOWN TO HIS DEATH AT BABYLON.

GRECIAN AFFAIRS FROM THE LANDING OF ALEXANDER IN ASIA TO THE CLOSE OF THE LAMIAN WAR.

State of the Grecian world when Alexander crossed the Hellespont. -- Grecian spirit might have been called into action if the Persians had played their game well. -- Hopes raised in Greece, first by the Persian fleet in the AEgean, next by the two great Persian armies on land. -- Public acts and policy at Athens -- decidedly pacific. -- Phokion and Demades were leading ministers at Athens -- they were of macedonizing politics. -- Demosthenes and Lykurgus, though not in the ascendent politically, are nevertheless still public men of importance. Financial activity of Lykurgus. -- Position of Demosthenes -- his prudent conduct -- Anti-Macedonian movement from Sparta -- King Agis visits the Persian admirals in the AEgean. His attempts both in Krete and in the Peloponnesus. -- Agis levies an army in Peloponnesus, and makes open declaration against Antipater. -- Agis, at first partially successful, is completely defeated by Antipater, and slain. -- Complete submission of all Greece to Antipater -- Spartan envoys sent up to Alexander in Asia. -- Untoward result of the defensive efforts of Greece -- want of combination. -- Position of parties at Athens during the struggle of Agis -- reaction of the macedonizing party after his defeat. -- Judicial contest between AEschines and Demosthenes. Preliminary circumstances as to the proposition of Ktesiphon, and the indictment by AEschines. -- Accusatory harangue of AEschines, nominally against the proposition of Ktesiphon, really against the political life of Demosthenes. -- Appreciation of AEschines, on independent evidence, as an accuser of Demosthenes. -- Reply of Demosthenes -- oration De Coron?. -- Funeral oration of extinct Grecian freedom. -- Verdict of the Dikasts -- triumph of Demosthenes -- exile of AEschines. -- Causes of the exile of AEschines -- he was the means of procuring coronation for Demosthenes. -- Subsequent accusation against Demosthenes, in the affair of Harpalus. -- Flight of Harpalus to Athens -- his previous conduct and relations with Athens. -- False reports conveyed to Alexander, that the Athenians had identified themselves with Harpalus. -- Circumstances attending the arrival of Harpalus at Sunium -- debate in the Athenian assembly -- promises held out by Harpalus -- the Athenians seem at first favorably disposed towards him. -- Phokion and Demosthenes both agree in dissuading the Athenians from taking up Harpalus. -- Demand by Antipater for the surrender of Harpalus -- the Athenians refuse to comply, but they arrest Harpalus and sequestrate his treasure for Alexander. -- Demosthenes moves the decree for arrest of Harpalus, who is arrested, but escapes. -- Conduct of Demosthenes in regard to the treasure of Harpalus -- deficiency of the sum counted and realized, as compared with the sum announced by Harpalus. -- Suspicions about this money -- Demosthenes moves that the Areopagus shall investigate the matter -- the Areopagites bring in a report against Demosthenes himself, with Demades and others, as guilty of corrupt appropriation. Demosthenes is tried on this charge, condemned, and goes into exile. -- Was Demosthenes guilty of such corrupt appropriation? Circumstances as known in the case. -- Demosthenes could not have received the money from Harpalus, since he opposed him from first to last. -- Had Demosthenes the means of embezzling, after the money had passed out of the control of Harpalus? Answer in the negative. Accusatory speech of Deinarchus -- virulent invective destitute of facts. -- Change of mind respecting Demosthenes, in the Athenean public, in a few months. -- Probable reality of the case, respecting the money of Harpalus, and the sentence of the Areopagus. -- Rescript of Alexander to the Grecian cities, directing that the exiles should be recalled in each. -- Purpose of the rescript -- to provide partisans for Alexander in each of the cities. Discontents in Greece. -- Effect produced in Greece, by the death of Alexander. The Athenians declare themselves champions of the liberation of Greece, in spite of Phokion's opposition. -- The AEtolians and many other Greeks join the confederacy for liberation -- activity of the Athenian Leosthenes as General. -- Athenian envoys sent round to invite co-operation from the various Greeks. -- Assistance lent to the Athenian envoys by Demosthenes, though in exile. -- He is recalled to Athens, and receives an enthusiastic welcome. -- Large Grecian confederacy against Antipater -- nevertheless without Sparta. Boeotia strongly in the Macedonian interest. Leosthenes with the confederate army marches into Thessaly. -- Battle in Thessaly -- victory of Leosthenes over Antipater, who is compelled to throw himself into Lamia, and await succors from Asia -- Leosthenes forms the blockade of Lamia: he is slain. -- Misfortune of the death of Leosthenes. Antiphilus is named in his place. Relaxed efforts of the Grecian army. -- Leonnatus, with a Macedonian army from Asia, arrives in Thessaly. His defeat and death. -- Antipater escapes from Lamia, and takes the command. -- War carried on by sea between the Macedonian and Athenian fleets. -- Reluctance of the Greek contingents to remain on long-continued service. The army in Thessaly is thinned by many returning home. -- Expected arrival of Kraterus to reinforce Antipater. Relations between the Macedonian officers. -- State of the regal family, and of the Macedonian generals and soldiery, after the death of Alexander. -- Philip Aridaeus is proclaimed king: the satrapies are distributed among the principal officers. -- Perdikkas the chief representative of central authority, assisted by Eumenes of Kardia. -- List of projects entertained by Alexander at the time of his death. The generals dismiss them as too vast. -- Plans of Leonnatus and Kleopatra. -- Kraterus joins Antipater in Macedonia with a powerful army. Battle of Krannon in Thessaly. Antipater gains a victory over the Greeks though not a complete one. -- Antiphilus tries to open negotiations with Antipater, who refuses to treat except with each city singly. Discouragement among the Greeks. Each city treats separately. Antipater grants favorable terms to all, except Athenians and AEtolians. Antipater and his army in Boeotia -- Athens left alone and unable to resist. Demosthenes and the other anti-Macedonian orators take flight. Embassy of Phokion, Xenokrates, and others to Antipater. -- Severe terms imposed upon Athens by Antipater. -- Disfranchisement and deportation of the 12,000 poorest Athenian citizens. -- Hardship suffered by the deported poor of Athens -- Macedonian garrison placed in Munychia. -- Demosthenes, Hyperides, and others, are condemned to death in their absence. Antipater sends officers to track and seize the Grecian exiles. He puts Hyperides to death. -- Demosthenes in sanctuary at Kalauria -- Archias with Thracian soldiers comes to seize him -- he takes poison, and dies. -- Miserable condition of Greece -- life and character of Demosthenes. -- Dishonorable position of Phokion at Athens under the Macedonian occupation. 275-331

FROM THE LAMIAN WAR TO THE CLOSE OF THE HISTORY OF FREE HELLAS AND HELLENISM.

Antipater purges and remodels the Peloponnesian cities. He attacks the AEtolians, with a view of departing them across to Asia. His presence becomes necessary in Asia: he concludes a pacification with the AEtolians. -- Plans of Perdikkas -- intrigues with the princesses at Pella. -- Antigonus detects the intrigues, and reveals them to Antipater and Kraterus. -- Unpropitious turn of fortune for the Greeks, in reference to the Lamian war. -- Antipater and Kraterus in Asia -- Perdikkas marches to attack Ptolemy in Egypt, but is killed by a mutiny of his own troops. Union of Antipater, Ptolemy, Antigonus, etc. New distribution of the satrapies, made at Triparadeisus. -- War between Antigonus and Eumenes in Asia. Energy and ability of Eumenes. He is worsted and blocked up in Nora. -- Sickness and death of Antipater. The Athenian orator Demades is put to death in Macedonia -- Antipater sets aside his son Kassander, and names Polysperchon viceroy. Discontent and opposition of Kassander. -- Kassander sets up for himself, gets possession of Munychia, and forms alliance with Ptolemy and Antigonus against Polysperchon. Plans of Polysperchon -- alliance with Olympias in Europe, and with Eumenes in Asia -- enfranchisement of the Grecian cities. -- Ineffectual attempts of Eumenes to uphold the imperial dynasty in Asia: his gallantry and ability: he is betrayed by his own soldiers, and slain by Antigonus. -- Edict issued by Polysperchon at Pella, in the name of the imperial dynasty -- subverting the Antipatrian oligarchies in the Grecian cities, restoring political exiles, and granting free constitutions to each. -- Letters and measures of Polysperchon to enforce the edict. State of Athens: exiles returning: complicated political parties: danger of Phokion. -- Negotiations of the Athenians with Nikanor, governor of Munychia for Kassander. -- Nikanor seizes Peiraeus by surprise. Phokion, though forewarned, takes no precautions against it. -- Mischief to the Athenians, as well as to Polysperchon, from Nikanor's occupation of Peiraeus; culpable negligence, and probable collusion, of Phokion. -- Arrival of Alexander : his treacherous policy to the Athenians; Kassander reaches Peiraeus. -- Intrigues of Phokion with Alexander -- he tries to secure for himself the protection of Alexander against the Athenians. -- Return of the deported exiles to Athens -- public vote passed in the Athenian assembly against Phokion and his colleagues. Phokion leaves the city, is protected by Alexander, and goes to meet Polysperchon, in Phokis. -- Agnonides and others are sent as deputies to Polysperchon, to accuse Phokion and to claim the benefit of the regal edict. -- Agnonides and Phokion are heard before Polysperchon -- Phokion and his colleagues are delivered up as prisoners to the Athenians. Phokion is conveyed as prisoner to Athens, and brought for trial before the assembly. Motion of his friends for exclusion of non-qualified persons. -- Intense exasperation of the returned exiles against Phokion -- grounds for that feeling. -- Phokion is condemned to death -- vindictive manifestation against him in the assembly, furious and unanimous. -- Death of Phokion and his four colleagues. -- Alteration of the sentiment of the Athenians towards Phokion, not long afterwards. Honors shown to his memory. -- Explanation of this alteration. Kassander gets possession of Athens and restores the oligarchical or Phokionic party. -- Life and character of Phokion. -- War between Polysperchon and Kassander, in Attica and Peloponnesus. Polysperchon is repulsed in the siege of Megalopolis, and also defeated at sea. -- Increased strength of Kassander in Greece -- he gets possession of Athens. -- Restoration of the oligarchical government at Athens, though in a mitigated form, under the Phalerean Demetrius. -- Administration of the Phalerean Demetrius at Athens, in a moderate spirit. Census taken of the Athenian population -- Kassander in Peloponnesus -- many cities join him -- the Spartans surround their city with walls. -- Feud in the Macedonian imperial family -- Olympias puts to death Philip Aridaeus and Eurydik? -- she reigns in Macedonia: her bloody revenge against the partisans of Antipater. -- Kassander passes into Macedonia -- defeats Olympias, and becomes master of the country -- Olympias is besieged in Pydna, captured, and put to death. -- Great power of Antigonus in Asia. Confederacy of Kassander, Lysimachus, Ptolemy, and Seleukus against him. -- Kassander founds Kassandreia, and restores Thebes. -- Measures of Antigonus against Kassander -- he promises freedom to the Grecian cities -- Ptolemy promises the like. Great power of Kassander in Greece. -- Forces of Antigonus in Greece. Considerable success against Kassander. -- Pacification between the belligerents. Grecian autonomy guaranteed in name by all. Kassander puts to death Roxana and her child. -- Polysperchon espouses the pretensions of Herakles, son of Alexander, against Kassander. He enters into compact with Kassander, assassinates the young prince, and is recognized as ruler of Southern Greece. -- Assassination of Kleopatra, last surviving relative of Alexander the Great, by Antigonus. -- Ptolemy of Egypt in Greece -- after some successes, he concludes a truce with Kassander. Passiveness of the Grecian cities. -- Sudden arrival of Demetrius Poliorketes in Peiraeus. The Athenians declare in his favor. Demetrius Phalereus retires to Egypt. Capture of Munychia and Megara. -- Demetrius Poliorketes enters Athens in triumph. He promises restoration of the democracy. Extravagant votes of flattery passed by the Athenians towards him. Two new Athenian tribes created. -- Alteration of tone and sentiment in Athens, during the last thirty years. -- Contrast of Athens as proclaimed free by Demetrius Poliorketes, with Athens after the expulsion of Hippias. -- Opposition made by Demochares, nephew of Demosthenes, to these obsequious public flatteries. -- Demetrius Phalereus condemned in his absence. Honorable commemoration of the deceased orator Lykurgus. Restrictive law passed against the philosophers -- they all leave Athens. The law is repealed next year, and the philosophers return to Athens. -- Exploits of Demetrius Poliorketes. His long siege of Rhodes. Gallant and successful resistance of the citizens. -- His prolonged war, and ultimate success in Greece, against Kassander. -- Return of Demetrius Poliorketes to Athens -- his triumphant reception -- memorable Ithyphallic hymn addressed to him. -- Helpless condition of the Athenians -- proclaimed by themselves. -- Idolatry shown to Demetrius at Athens. He is initiate in the Eleusinian mysteries, out of the regular season. -- March of Demetrius into Thessaly -- he passes into Asia and joins Antigonus -- great battle of Ipsus, in which the four confederates completely defeat Antigonus, who is slain and his Asiatic power broken up and partitioned. -- Restoration of the Kassandrian dominion in Greece. Lachares makes himself despot at Athens, under Kassander. Demetrius Poliorketes returns, and expels Lachares. He garrisons Peiraeus and Munychia. -- Death of Kassander. Bloody feuds among his family. -- Demetrius acquires the crown of Macedonia. -- Antigonus Gonatas master of Macedonia and Greece. Permanent rule of the Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia, until the conquest of that country by the Romans. -- Spirit of the Greeks broken -- isolation of the cities from each other by Antigonus. -- The Greece of Polybius cannot form a subject of history by itself, but only as an appendage to foreign neighbors. -- Evidence of the political nullity of Athens -- public decree in honor of Demochares -- what acts are recorded as his titles to public gratitude. 331-393

SICILIAN AND ITALIAN GREEKS -- AGATHOKLES.

Constitution established by Timoleon at Syracuse -- afterwards exchanged for an oligarchy. -- Italian Greeks -- pressed upon by enemies from the interior -- Archidamus king of Sparta slain in Italy. -- Growth of the Molossian kingdom of Epirus, through Macedonian aid -- Alexander the Molossian king brother of Olympias. -- The Molossian Alexander crosses into Italy to assist the Tarentines. His exploits and death. -- Assistance sent by the Syracusans to Kroton -- first rise of Agathokles. -- Agathokles distinguishes himself in the Syracusan expedition -- he is disappointed of honors -- becomes discontented and leaves Syracuse. -- He levies a mercenary force -- his exploits as general in Italy and Sicily. -- Change of government at Syracuse -- Agathokles is recalled -- his exploits against the exiles -- his dangerous character at home. -- Farther internal changes at Syracuse -- recall of the exiles -- Agathokles readmitted -- swears amnesty and fidelity. -- Agathokles, in collusion with Hamilkar, arms his partisans at Syracuse, and perpetuates a sanguinary massacre of the citizens. -- Agathokles is constituted sole despot of Syracuse. -- His popular manners, military energy, and conquests. Progress of Agathokles in conquering Sicily. The Agrigentines take alarm and organize a defensive alliance against him. -- They invite the Spartan Akrotatus to command -- his bad conduct and failure. -- Sicily the only place in which a glorious Hellenic career was open. Peace concluded by Agathokles with the Agrigentines -- his great power in Sicily. -- He is repulsed from Agrigentum -- the Carthaginians send an armament to Sicily against him. -- Position of the Carthaginians between Gela and Agrigentum -- their army reinforced from home. -- Operations of Agathokles against them -- his massacre of citizens at Gela. -- Battle of the Himera, between Agathokles and the Carthaginians. -- Total defeat of Agathokles by the Carthaginians. -- The Carthaginians recover a large part of Sicily from Agathokles. His depressed condition at Syracuse. -- He conceives the plan of attacking the Carthaginians in Africa. -- His energy and sagacity in organizing this expedition. His renewed massacre and spoliation. -- He gets out of the harbor, in spite of the blockading fleet. Eclipse of the sun. He reaches Africa safely. -- He burns his vessels -- impressive ceremony for affecting this, under vow to Demeter. -- Agathokles marches into the Carthaginian territory -- captures Tun?s -- richness and cultivation of the country. -- Consternation at Carthage -- the city force marches out against him -- Hanno and Bomilkar named generals. -- Inferior numbers of Agathokles -- his artifices to encourage the soldiers. -- Treachery of the Carthaginian general Bomilkar -- victory of Agathokles. -- Conquests of Agathokles among the Carthaginian dependencies on the eastern coast -- Religious terror and distress of the Carthaginians. Human sacrifice. -- Operations of Agathokles on the eastern coast of Carthage -- capture of Neapolis, Adrumetum, Thapsus, etc. -- Agathokles fortifies Aspis -- undertakes operations against the interior country -- defeats the Carthaginians again. -- Proceedings of Hamilkar before Syracuse -- the city is near surrendering -- he is disappointed, and marches away from it. -- Renewed attack of Hamilkar upon Syracuse -- he tries to surprise Euryalus, but is totally defeated, made prisoner, and slain. -- The Agrigentines stand forward as champions of Sicilian freedom against Agathokles and the Carthaginians. -- Mutiny in the army of Agathokles at Tun?s -- his great danger, and address in extricating himself. -- Carthaginian army sent to act in the interior -- attacked by Agathokles with some success -- his camp is pillaged by the Numidians. -- Agathokles invites the aid of Ophellas from Kyr?n?. -- Antecedent circumstances of Kyr?n?. Division of coast between Kyr?n? and Carthage. -- Thimbron with the Harpalian mercenaries is invited over to Kyr?n? by exiles. His checkered career, on the whole victorious, in Libya. -- The Kyrenaeans solicit aid from the Egyptian Ptolemy, who sends Ophellas thither. Defeat and death of Thimbron. Kyrenaica annexed to the dominions of Ptolemy, under Ophellas as viceroy. -- Position and hopes of Ophellas. He accepts the invitation of Agathokles. He collects colonists from Athens and other Grecian cities. -- March of Ophellas, with his army, and his colonists, from Kyr?n? to the Carthaginian territory -- sufferings endured in the march. -- Perfidy of Agathokles -- he kills Ophellas -- gets possession of his army -- ruin and dispersion of the colonists. -- Terrible sedition at Carthage -- Bomilkar tries to seize the supreme power -- he is overthrown and slain. -- Farther successes of Agathokles in Africa -- he captures Utica, Hippo-Zarytus, and Hippagreta. -- Agathokles goes to Sicily, leaving Archagathus to command in Africa. Successes of Archagathus in the interior country. -- Redoubled efforts of the Carthaginians -- they gain two great victories over Archagathus. -- Danger of Archagathus -- he is blocked up by the Carthaginians at Tunis. -- Agathokles in Sicily. His career at first prosperous. Defeat of the Agrigentines. -- Activity of Agathokles in Sicily -- Deinokrates in great force against him. -- Agrigentine army under Xenodokus -- opposed to the mercenaries of Agathokles -- superiority of the latter. -- Defeat of Xenodokus by Leptines -- Agathokles passes over into Africa -- bad state of his army there -- he is defeated by the Carthaginians. -- Nocturnal panic and disorder in both camps. -- Desperate condition of Agathokles -- he deserts his army and escapes to Sicily. -- The deserted army kill the two sons of Agathokles, and capitulate with the Carthaginians. -- African expedition of Agathokles -- boldness of the first conception -- imprudently pushed and persisted in. -- Proceedings of Agathokles in Sicily -- his barbarities at Egesta and Syracuse. -- Great mercenary force under Deinokrates in Sicily -- Agathokles solicits peace from him, and is refused -- he concludes peace with Carthage. -- Battle of Torgium -- victory of Agathokles over Deinokrates. -- Accommodation and compact between Agathokles and Deinokrates. -- Operations of Agathokles in Liparae, Italy, and Korkyra -- Kleonymus of Sparta. -- Last projects of Agathokles -- mutiny of his grandson Archagathus -- sickness, poisoning, and death of Agathokles. -- Splendid genius of action and resource -- nefarious dispositions -- of Agathokles. -- Hellenic agency in Sicily continues during the life of Agathokles, but becomes then subordinate to preponderant foreigners. 393-452

INDEX 497

HISTORY OF GREECE.

FIRST PERIOD OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT -- SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF THEBES.

My last preceding volume ended with the assassination of Philip of Macedon, and the accession of his son Alexander the Great, then twenty years of age.

It demonstrates the altered complexion of Grecian history, that we are now obliged to seek for marking events in the succession to the Macedonian crown, or in the ordinances of Macedonian kings. In fact, the Hellenic world has ceased to be autonomous. In Sicily, indeed, the free and constitutional march, revived by Timoleon, is still destined to continue for a few years longer; but all the Grecian cities south of Mount Olympus have descended into dependents of Macedonia. Such dependence, established as a fact by the battle of Chaeroneia and by the subsequent victorious march of Philip over Peloponnesus, was acknowledged in form by the vote of the Grecian synod at Corinth. While even the Athenians had been compelled to concur in submission, Sparta alone, braving all consequences, continued inflexible in her refusal. The adherence of Thebes was not trusted to the word of the Thebans, but ensured by the Macedonian garrison established in her citadel, called the Kadmeia. Each Hellenic city, small and great,--maritime, inland, and insular--, was thus enrolled as a separate unit in the list of subject-allies attached to the imperial headship of Philip.

Under these circumstances, the history of conquered Greece loses its separate course, and becomes merged in that of conquering Macedonia. Nevertheless, there are particular reasons which constrain the historian of Greece to carry on the two together for a few years longer. First, conquered Greece exercised a powerful action on her conqueror--"Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit". The Macedonians, though speaking a language of their own, had neither language for communicating with others, nor literature, nor philosophy, except Grecian and derived from Greeks. Philip, while causing himself to be chosen chief of Hellas, was himself not only partially hellenized, but an eager candidate for Hellenic admiration. He demanded the headship under the declared pretence of satisfying the old antipathy against Persia. Next, the conquests of Alexander, though essentially Macedonian, operated indirectly as the initiatory step of a series of events, diffusing Hellenic language over a large breadth of Asia,--opening that territory to the better observation, in some degree even to the superintendence, of intelligent Greeks--and thus producing consequences important in many ways to the history of mankind. Lastly, the generation of free Greeks upon whom the battle of Chaeroneia fell, were not disposed to lie quiet if any opportunity occurred for shaking off their Macedonian masters. The present volume will record the unavailing efforts made for this purpose, in which Demosthenes and most of the other leaders perished.

A kinsman of Olympias, named Leonidas, and an Akarnanian named Lysimachus, are mentioned as the chief tutors to whom Alexander's childhood was entrusted. Of course the Iliad of Homer was among the first things which he learnt as a boy. Throughout most of his life, he retained a passionate interest in this poem, a copy of which, said to have been corrected by Aristotle, he carried with him in his military campaigns. We are not told, nor is it probable, that he felt any similar attachment for the less warlike Odyssey. Even as a child, he learnt to identify himself in sympathy with Achilles,--his ancestor by the mother's side, according to the AEakid pedigree. The tutor Lysimachus won his heart by calling himself Phoenix--Alexander, Achilles--and Philip, by the name of Peleus. Of Alexander's boyish poetical recitations, one anecdote remains, both curious and of unquestionable authenticity. He was ten years old, when the Athenian legation, including both AEschines and Demosthenes, came to Pella to treat about peace. While Philip entertained them at table, in his usual agreeable and convivial manner, the boy Alexander recited for their amusement certain passages of poetry which he had learnt--and delivered, in response with another boy, a dialogue out of one of the Grecian dramas.

Plutarch, Alexand. c. 5, 6.

AEschines cont. Timarch. p. 167.

At the age of thirteen, Alexander was placed under the instruction of Aristotle, whom Philip expressly invited for the purpose, and whose father Nikomachus had been both friend and physician of Philip's father Amyntas. What course of study Alexander was made to go through, we unfortunately cannot state. He enjoyed the teaching of Aristotle for at least three years, and we are told that he devoted himself to it with ardor, contracting a strong attachment to his preceptor. His powers of addressing an audience, though not so well attested as those of his father, were always found sufficient for his purpose: moreover, he retained, even in the midst of his fatiguing Asiatic campaigns, an interest in Greek literature and poetry.

At what precise moment, during the lifetime of his father, Alexander first took part in active service, we do not know. It is said that once, when quite a youth, he received some Persian envoys during the absence of his father; and that he surprised them by the maturity of his demeanor, as well as by the political bearing and pertinence of his questions. Though only sixteen years of age, in 340 B. C., he was left at home as regent while Philip was engaged in the sieges of Byzantium and Perinthus. He put down a revolt of the neighboring Thracian tribe called Maedi, took one of their towns, and founded it anew under the title of Alexandria; the earliest town which bore that name, afterwards applied to so many other towns planted by him. In the march of Philip into Greece , Alexander took part, commanded one of the wings at the battle of Chaeroneia, and is said to have first gained the advantage on his side over the Theban sacred band.

Plutarch, Alex. 5.

Plutarch, Alex. 9. Justin says that Alexander was the companion of his father during part of the war in Thrace .

Plutarch, Alex. 10. Arrian, iii. 6, 8.

The prospects of Alexander were thus full of uncertainty and peril, up to the very day of Philip's assassination. The succession to the Macedonian crown, though transmitted in the same family, was by no means assured as to individual members; moreover, in the regal house of Macedonia , violent feuds and standing mistrust between father, sons, and brethren, were ordinary phaenomena, to which the family of the Antigonids formed an honorable exception. Between Alexander and Olympias on the one side, and Kleopatra with her son and Attalus on the other, a murderous contest was sure to arise. Kleopatra was at this time in the ascendent; Olympias was violent and mischievous; and Philip was only forty-seven years of age. Hence the future threatened nothing but aggravated dissension and difficulties for Alexander. Moreover his strong will and imperious temper, eminently suitable for supreme command, disqualified him from playing a subordinate part, even to his own father. The prudence of Philip, when about to depart on his Asiatic expedition, induced him to attempt to heal these family dissensions by giving his daughter Kleopatra in marriage to her uncle Alexander of Epirus, brother of Olympias. It was during the splendid marriage festival, then celebrated at AEgae, that he was assassinated--Olympias, Kleopatra, and Alexander, being all present, while Attalus was in Asia, commanding the Macedonian division sent forward in advance, jointly with Parmenio. Had Philip escaped this catastrophe, he would doubtless have carried on the war in Asia Minor with quite as much energy and skill as it was afterwards prosecuted by Alexander: though we may doubt whether the father would have stretched out to those ulterior undertakings which, gigantic and far-reaching as they were, fell short of the insatiable ambition of the son. But successful as Philip might have been in Asia, he would hardly have escaped gloomy family feuds; with Alexander as a mutinous son, under the instigations of Olympias,--and with Kleopatra on the other side, feeling that her own safety depended upon the removal of regal or quasi-regal competitors.

See the third chapter of Plutarch's life of Demetrius Poliork?t?s; which presents a vivid description of the feelings prevalent between members of regal families in those ages. Demetrius, coming home from the chase with his hunting javelins in his hand, goes up to his father Antigonus, salutes him, and sits down by his side without disarming. This is extolled as an unparalleled proof of the confidence and affection subsisting between the father and the son. In the families of all the other Diadochi murders of sons, mothers, and wives, were frequent--murders of brothers were even common, assumed to be precautions necessary for security. ????? ??? ????? ????????????? ? ???? ??? ?????? ???????? ??? ????????, ???? ?????????? ??? ???????? ??? ?????????? ???????? ??? ???????????, ??? ?? ???????? ??? ????, ???? ????????? ??? ?????? ?????? ??? ??????? ???????. ?? ??? ???? ??? ?????, ?? ??????, ~? ????? ?????~ ??? ???????? ???????? ??? ???????? ????? ??????????, ?????? ?? ~??? ?????~ ??? ??? ????????? ???????? ??????? ????. ~?? ?? ????? ?????? ??????~ ???????? ?????? ??? ?????? ??????, ?????? ?? ??????? ?????? ??? ????????? ?? ??? ??? ???????? ????????, ????? ?? ????????? ?? ???????? ???????????, ???? ~??????????? ?????? ?? ??????????? ?????? ??? ?????????~ ???? ?????????.

Compare Tacitus, Histor. v. 8, about the family feuds of the kings of Judaea; and Xenoph. Hieron. iii. 8.

In noticing the Antigonid family as a favorable exception, we must confine our assertion to the first century of that family. The bloody tragedy of Perseus and Demetrius shortly preceded the ruin of the empire.

From such formidable perils, visible in the distance, if not immediately impending, the sword of Pausanias guaranteed both Alexander and the Macedonian kingdom. But at the moment when the blow was struck, and when the Lynkestian Alexander, one of those privy to it, ran to forestall resistance and place the crown on the head of Alexander the Great--no one knew what to expect from the young prince thus suddenly exalted at the age of twenty years. The sudden death of Philip in the fulness of glory and ambitious hopes, must have produced the strongest impression, first upon the festive crowd assembled,--next throughout Macedonia,--lastly, upon the foreigners whom he had reduced to dependence, from the Danube to the borders of Paeonia. All these dependencies were held only by the fear of Macedonian force. It remained to be proved whether the youthful son of Philip was capable of putting down opposition and upholding the powerful organization created by his father. Moreover Perdikkas, the elder brother and predecessor of Philip, had left a son named Amyntas, now at least twenty-four years of age, to whom many looked as the proper successor.

Arrian, De Rebus post Alexandrum, Fragm. ap. Photium, cod. 92. p. 220; Plutarch, De Fortun? Alex. Magn. p. 327. ???? ?? ??????? ?? ? ????????? ???? ??????? ??????????? ??? ???? ??????? ??????.

But Alexander, present and proclaimed at once by his friends, showed himself both in word and deed, perfectly competent to the emergency. He mustered, caressed, and conciliated, the divisions of the Macedonian army and the chief officers. His addresses were judicious and energetic, engaging that the dignity of the kingdom should be maintained unimpaired, and that even the Asiatic projects already proclaimed should be prosecuted with as much vigor as if Philip still lived.

Diod. xvii. 2.

It was one of the first measures of Alexander to celebrate with magnificent solemnities the funeral of his deceased father. While the preparations for it were going on, he instituted researches to find out and punish the accomplices of Pausanias. Of these indeed, the most illustrious person mentioned to us--Olympias--was not only protected by her position from punishment, but retained great ascendency over her son to the end of his life. Three other persons are mentioned by name as accomplices--brothers and persons of good family from the district of Upper Macedonia called Lynk?stis--Alexander, Heromenes, and Arrhabaeus, sons of A?ropus. The two latter were put to death, but the first of the three was spared, and even promoted to important charges, as a reward for his useful forwardness in instantly saluting Alexander king. Others also, we know not how many, were executed; and Alexander seems to have imagined that there still remained some undetected. The Persian king boasted in public letters, with how much truth we cannot say, that he too had been among the instigators of Pausanias.

Arrian, i. 25, 2; Curtius, vii. 1, 6. Alexander son of A?ropus was son-in-law of Antipater. The case of this Alexander--and of Olympias--afforded a certain basis to those who said that Alexander had dealt favorably with the accomplices of Pausanias.

Plutarch, Alexand. 10-27; Diodor. xvii. 51; Justin, xi. 11.

Arrian, ii. 14, 10.

Among the persons slain about this time by Alexander, we may number his first-cousin and brother-in-law Amyntas--son of Perdikkas : Amyntas was a boy when his father Perdikkas died. Though having a preferable claim to the succession, according to usage, he had been put aside by his uncle Philip, on the ground of his age and of the strenuous efforts required on commencing a new reign. Philip had however given in marriage to this Amyntas his daughter Kynna. Nevertheless, Alexander now put him to death, on accusation of conspiracy: under what precise circumstances, does not appear--but probably Amyntas conceived himself as having a better right to the succession, and was so conceived by many others. The infant son of Kleopatra by Philip is said to have been killed by Alexander, as a rival in the succession; Kleopatra herself was afterwards put to death by Olympias during his absence, and to his regret. Attalus, also, uncle of Kleopatra and joint commander of the Macedonian army in Asia, was assassinated under the private orders of Alexander, by Hekataeus and Philotas. Another Amyntas, son of Antiochus fled for safety into Asia: probably others, who felt themselves to be objects of suspicion, did the like--since by the Macedonian custom, not merely a person convicted of high treason, but all his kindred along with him, were put to death.

Compare Polyaenus, v. 60; and Plutarch, Fort. Alex. Magn. p. 327.

It was during this expedition into Thrace and Illyria, about eight months after his accession, that Alexander promised to give his sister Kynna in marriage to Langarus prince of the Agrianes . Langarus died of sickness soon after; so that this marriage never took place. But when the promise was made, Kynna must have been a widow. Her husband Amyntas must therefore have been put to death during the first months of Alexander's reign.

See my last preceding volume, Chap. xc. p. 518; Diod. xvii. 2; Curtius, vii. 1, 6; Justin, ix. 7 xi. 2. xii. 6; Plutarch, Alexand. 10; Pausanias, viii. 7, 5.

Arrian, i. 17 10; Plutarch, Alex. 20, Curtius, iii. 28, 18.

Curtius, vi. 42, 20. Compare with this custom, a passage in the Ajax of Sophokles, v. 725.

AEschines adv. Ktesiphont. c. 29. p. 469. c. 78 p. 608; Plutarch, Demosth. 22.

AEschines adv. Ktesiph. p. 547. c. 50.

Plutarch, Phokion, 16.

We gather this from AEschines adv. Ktesiph. p. 551. c. 52.

Diodorus mentions this communication of Demosthenes to Attalus; which, however, I cannot but think improbable. Probably Charidemus was the organ of the communications.

This letter from Darius is distinctly alluded to, and even a sentence cited from it, by AEschines adv. Ktesiph. p. 633, 634. c. 88. We know that Darius wrote in very different language not long afterwards, near the time when Alexander crossed into Asia . The first letter must have been sent shortly after Philip's death, when Darius was publicly boasting of having procured the deed, and before he had yet learnt to fear Alexander. Compare Diodor. xvii. 7.

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