Read Ebook: Tactics Volume 1 (of 2). Introduction and Formal Tactics of Infantry by Balck W William Krueger Walter Translator

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According to the Cyclist Regulations dated September 10th, 1904, the cyclist company is to be looked upon as infantry, which is capable of moving at great speed, but is tied to the network of roads. The cyclist companies are principally intended for defensive action, holding an important point until the arrival of infantry. They are also to serve as support for cavalry and artillery, but are not adapted for reconnaissance work. Since it is difficult for them to secure their flanks on the march, they are to be used mainly in combination with other arms.

In winter campaigns, when wheel and horse cannot be used, recourse is had to the Canadian snowshoe or to the Norwegian snowshoe or ski . In France, Italy, Austria, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland marching on snowshoes is assiduously practiced, while in Germany the troops have so far done little in this line. The ski is, however, coming more and more into vogue among the rural population of the German mountains.

One of the most remarkable snowshoe marches ever recorded is without doubt that made by the ski detachment of the 4th Regiment of Tirolese Kaiser-J?gers stationed in Salzburg. In June, 1905, this detachment, consisting of 4 officers, 15 men and 4 guides, all with field equipment, marched around the base of the "Grosz Glockner," via Mittersil, Felber-Tauern , Windisch-Matrey, Lienz, Dolsack, Hochtor , into the Fuscher valley, despite violent cyclonic snow storms, a journey which, even in mid-summer, can only be undertaken by experienced tourists. In several of these detachments experiments were made with white covers for uniform and equipment, which enabled individual men and patrols to approach unseen to within 200 to 300 m. of an opponent.

Deep snow is an effective obstacle for troops not equipped with snowshoes. This is not entirely due to the fact that the march is retarded, but to the unusual difficulties attending the service of security. Covering bodies are stalled. Besides, the difficulties of maintaining communication with neighboring detachments are increased when valleys or abrupt declivities intervene between the forces. The only remedy in such cases is to employ the snowshoe, upon which one can move rapidly without regard to roads, and up or down hill without difficulty. Patrols can be despatched to adequate distances from the marching body on skis alone. Ski-runners can perform the same duty which cavalry performs on the plain; for instance, they can occupy points in advance which are of importance to us, dispute crossings with the enemy, and hold him at bay. Ski detachments alone are able to reconnoiter the condition of roads and test the carrying power of snow in advance of a command, and they alone can furnish the connecting links in an extended outpost position, because they alone are able to move off the roads. During halts they furnish guards; in action they easily turn the enemy's flanks, reconnoiter his weak points as well as the position of his reserves; and after the fight they maintain contact with him as patrols. They can hasten forward in advance of a command and prepare cantonments and bivouacs, and attend to the cooking.

The great depth of a detachment of ski-runners is a disadvantage. Each ski-runner takes up 2.20 m., and in addition a distance of 1 m. must be left between men. Besides, as the men are not all equally skilled in using skis, the road space taken up by a detachment of runners is increased considerably. This necessitates the employment of small detachments not exceeding 100 men. The proper sphere of ski-runners is patrol duty. In winter campaigns ski-runners are a necessary substitute for cavalry. In Scandinavia reconnaissance detachments are composed of ski-runners and cavalry, the horses pulling the runners. This permits a very rapid movement over snow-covered ground and may also be employed where the use of the much slower sled is impracticable owing to the nature of the terrain. Much practice is undoubtedly necessary to acquire proficiency in this sport, for it surely cannot be easy to preserve an upright position on skis behind a galloping horse, while at the same time overcoming all the difficulties of the ground. When troopers cannot continue to perform reconnaissance work, they are replaced by snowshoe or ski-runners. The snowshoe performances in France, since the establishment by War Department order of a training school in Brian?on, are worthy of note. According to the experiences gained at that institution, a period of four weeks is ample for training men for extended mountain marches. On January 18th, 1904, a body of men on snowshoes covered a distance of 80 km., including a climb of 1,700 m., in 20 hours .

During the Norse winter sports of 1905, the winner covered a distance of 67 km. in 2?/? hours.

While column tactics were in vogue, the above mentioned requirements of a tactical unit were completely fulfilled by the battalion, but this is no longer the case. It is quite impossible for one voice to control the movements of a battalion in action; this is scarcely possible in case of a company. On the other hand, a company is too weak to carry out an independent mission in action. Nothing less than a battalion possesses the requisite fighting power, strength, and capacity for subdivision, to sustain an action independently, to solve minor problems of combat, and to remain a body full of fighting efficiency even after sustaining serious losses such as are unavoidable in every modern infantry action.

To attempt a further definition of the term "tactical unit" would be of little value. General von Scherff in a logical manner constructs a "troop unit" from "fighting groups" , several of which form a "fighting unit" , "possessing the requisite power to carry out a specific task," and placed under the command of a responsible leader. "The definition of a fighting unit includes, on principle, its indivisibility in action. Dispersion is a crime, division at least an evil." The "combat unit" consists of a number of fighting units. "The commander of the combat unit should be able to lead it as a compact entity, and should have the power of employing its component parts independently for combined action against some point." General von Scherff has found imitators in Austria, where the term body of troops is applied to an organization having the necessary means for feeding, clothing, and equipping the men, and which is composed of a number of "basic units." Such "basic units" as can be supervised, handled, and controlled directly by one leader, who knows the individual men thereof and their characteristics, are the troop , battery, and company. Von Boguslawski applies the term "fighting unit" to organizations from the company to the brigade, which act in accordance with the tactics of their arm, supported by the other arms, in the sphere assigned to them by orders or by circumstances. Divisions, which, by the co?peration of the three arms, are capable of independent employment on the march and in action, he calls "combat units." According to Boguslawski, army corps are "battle units," with which the commander reckons in battle, and which are strong enough to meet an energetic attack or to execute one themselves.

The basic unit of infantry is the company, from 200 to 250 men strong in the larger armies. It seems hardly practicable to exceed a strength of 150 men, as this is about the greatest number in which a relation based upon personal influence of the leader on his subordinates can still be obtained. In armies in which companies are composed of more than 200 men, the numbers in excess of this figure may be regarded as a margin of safety, intended to maintain the company at a strength of 200 rifles after the first casualties of a campaign, produced by marching, detached service and battle losses. In view of the losses, which frequently increase with extraordinary rapidity in modern battles, it appears undesirable to fix a lower figure than that above mentioned, as the companies would otherwise lose their independence and could no longer be considered basic units.

In addition, five non-combatants.

In the four-company organization the battalion possesses an asset which enables it to adapt itself easily to any combat situation. The battalion organization is the outgrowth of practical necessity; the regimental commander cannot handle 12-16 companies without difficulty, and an intermediate unit, the battalion, is necessary. The battalion is the practical, and the regiment, consisting of 3 or 4 battalions, the ideal unit. Regiments consisting of two battalions do not possess the same advantages, as the regimental staff becomes superfluous during each necessary division of the regiment. Two battalion regiments do indeed facilitate command; they are, however, more expensive in time of peace and are of advantage in action only when formed into brigades of six battalions each, in which case the commander has a compactly organized reserve available.

This breaking up of brigades is practically induced by the two regiment brigade organization. . When once the brigade commander has assigned sections or points of attack to his regiments, there remains very little for him to do. He can form a reserve only by taking two battalions from one regiment, or one battalion from each. The brigade is, however, not like the regiment, an entity of bodies of troops, but a unit assembled for tactical purposes, which may, without regard to the whole, be increased or diminished by one or more battalions in case of necessity. On the march and in action the brigade organization as a subdivision of the division cannot always be maintained; groups are frequently formed in which the normal units must be broken up. In large battles the brigade is the largest force which may yet be employed as an intact unit, although the employment of infantry by regiments will continue to be the rule. Brigade commanders are necessary for decreasing units of command and desirable for relieving the division commanders of a part of their work. In time of peace brigade commanders are useful for directing recruitment and, moreover, as connecting links between regiments and the division. The unmistakable advantages of the three-battalion organization have induced the United States to form its brigades of three regiments, each of three battalions . An English division consists of three brigades of four battalions each.

In the Russo-Japanese war the Russian companies were equipped with 80 small spades and 20 hand axes; the Japanese companies with 68 small spades, 17 mattocks, 8 hatchets, and 30 wire cutters.

Earth as a covering material and, incidental thereto, the adoption of the small spade after the Russo-Turkish war, have increased in importance owing to the greater penetrating power of the modern infantry bullets. The disadvantages of the spade lie in the danger of its being misused and in the consequent impairment of offensive spirit. There is, moreover, danger that the fire effect will be impaired and subordinated to considerations of cover. The spade should therefore not be employed on every occasion, but only when the tactical purpose in view requires it.

What the weight of the portable intrenching equipment of the Japanese, Russian, and British infantry will be, is still undecided, but experiments are being made with a uniform tool. When we consider, that for the purpose of intrenching, one man requires a space of 1.20 m., and for handling his rifle a space of 0.8 m., and that when intrenching under fire all the men cannot work, it is obvious that it would be impracticable to equip each man with an intrenching tool. According to all experience, it is sufficient to furnish every other man with spade or pick. In addition to this, however, a company requires a large number of wire cutters. Only the French infantry is equipped with explosives, every regiment having 108 cartridges.

The following table shows the intrenching tool equipment available in each battalion:

Each company has 4 pioneers, which carry intrenching and carpenter tools in addition to their rifles. These men are formed into a pioneer platoon of 64 men in each regiment.

The adoption of portable intrenching tools, 50 spades and 12-15 mattocks per company, is contemplated.

The following demolition tools are available in each battalion: 64 picks, 64 fascine knives, and 16 wire cutters. Sappeur sections carry in addition a mattock or a pick apiece, and each ammunition carrier also carries a pick, a fascine knife, or a saw. The large intrenching tools are apparently being changed at the present moment.

The load carried by the infantryman should not exceed one-third of the man's weight , or not more than 28 kg. According to the "Regulations for the Employment of Infantry Equipment, M/95," the load of a soldier whose height is 1.67 m. is about 27 kg., distributed as follows:

To this must be added intrenching tools:

Small spade and scabbard 0.89 kg. Hatchet 1.08 ,, Mattock 1.48 ,, Load with spade 27.596 ,,

Tent equipment 1.620 kg.

Iron ration, 2.388 kg. The British soldier carries only a 269 g. ration on his person, sufficient for 26 hours. It consists of two parts, one containing cocoa paste, the other concentrated extract of beef .

COMPARISON.

Italy 162, Japan and Germany 150, the other states 120 rounds per man.

Depending on whether the man carries intrenching tools cooking utensils .

Alpini carry 32.096 kg.

On the morning of June 26th, 1866 , reveille sounded by a trumpeter was mistaken for an alarm signal. The 7th Infantry Division assembled and the signal was repeated in two other army corps. Two days previous another useless alarm had occurred because a trumpeter, surprised by a number of Radetzky Hussars, had blown the alarm signal.

The object of assembly formations is to unite troops, usually prior to a movement, in a restricted space permitting an easy survey of the entire body. Assembly formations serve also the purpose of placing troops in readiness before starting on a march, before beginning an action, and for moving them on the battlefield when out of reach of hostile fire . Route formations should permit an orderly, comfortable march of the troops, as much of the available width of road being used as possible, a space being left for orderlies and mounted messengers, and for troops which are drawn forward. In order to permit a prompt deployment of troops for action, it is necessary to reduce their depth. Columns only are suitable for moving troops. The situation existing at the moment will determine to what extent allowances may be made for the comfort of the troops, or how far considerations of comfort should be ignored in view of readiness for action, and to what extent the depth of the columns should be decreased.

The formations for moving troops should be such as to cause the least discomfort to the troops, should make it possible to avoid obstacles, to utilize cover, facilitate changes of front and direction of march, and permit a prompt deployment in any direction. These formations are columns unless the hostile fire effect makes a deployment into line necessary.

Battle formations should be such as to permit the employment of all weapons . This requirement is not satisfied by columns, but only by the line. Modern fire effect excludes every employment of close order formations under effective hostile fire and compels the most extensive deployment.

Whether line or column is the preferable battle formation is a question belonging to a bygone age. The battles of the British in Spain and at Waterloo, the engagement at Groszbeeren, and the attack of the six battalions of Borke's Brigade at the Katzbach, amply demonstrate that the defeat of the Prussians at Jena was not due to the employment of linear battle formations alone. In a fight with an equal opponent, formed in columns, well trained and disciplined troops, formed in line that allows of the use of all the rifles and is suitable for shock action as well, have always carried off the victory. On the other hand, in the battles of the Empire we find columns formed, which of necessity excluded a large part of the men from participation in the action, but which were designed to break through the hostile battle line by sheer momentum. At Wagram, Macdonald's Corps was formed with eight deployed battalions in rear of each other in a single column, supported on the flanks by seven and eight battalions respectively, also in column. At Austerlitz and Waterloo we find attack formations in which from eight to twelve battalions of a division were deployed one in rear of the other at distances of twenty paces. Column and line must be examined with reference to their mobility, their vulnerability and their fire and shock power.

The column possesses greater mobility and is better adapted than the line for executing changes of front and for taking advantage of the cover afforded by the ground. In a column steadiness and shock power and the influence exerted by the officers, is greater than in a line.

The line is more dependent on the terrain in its movements. The characteristics of the line are great frontal fire power, weakness of the flanks, difficulty of quickly changing front, and the ever present danger of being pierced. The line has been called the formation of the bold, the column that of the weak.

On account of the increased penetrating power of infantry projectiles, especially at short ranges, a column will suffer greater losses than a line; at longer ranges the curvature of the trajectory causes bullets which pass over the first echelon to strike the second or third. On ground falling with respect to the line of sight, lines, and on ground rising with respect to the line of sight, columns are exposed to greater losses when they come within the beaten zone.

At 1000 m., the projectile of rifle model '98 falls 5 cm. for each meter of the range, and at 1200 m. it falls 6 cm. per meter of the range, so that the second and third platoons of a company in column of platoons would offer a target having a vulnerable surface 35 cm. high , at 1000 m., 42 cm. high at 1200 m.

Formation of the Company.

In the company the files are placed in two ranks according to height from right to left. Each four files form a squad or group, and the entire company is divided into three platoons . When a platoon consists of more than three squads it is divided into two sections .

The number of ranks is intimately related to the rate of fire of the infantry weapon. During the days of slow loading, the necessity of keeping at least a part of the rifles at all times ready for firing led the Imperialists in the Thirty Years' war to form their musketeers into sixteen ranks, while Gustavus Adolphus was able to form his infantry into six ranks owing to the greater loading facility of their rifles. In the Seven Years' war the Prussian infantry was formed in three, that of the Austrians in four ranks, the fourth rank serving as a reserve. The first rank fired kneeling. The British infantry was the first to adopt the two rank formation for fire action, forming into four ranks for shock action and frequently for warding off cavalry attacks. Emperor Napoleon considered a third rank useless for fire and shock action and initiated the double rank formation on the eve of the battle of Leipzig. In 1888 the Prussian infantry--the last to do so--gave up the three rank formation which had long since lost its importance in battle and which was retained side by side with the double rank formation for purposes of parade only.

The German Infantry Drill Regulations define interval as the space between two elements on the same line, and distance as the space between two elements in the direction of depth. An interval is measured from the left flank of the element on the right to the right flank of the element on the left ; and distance in the company and in the battalion is measured from the rear of the element in front to the head of the element in rear . If the distance between two elements is equal to their front, the column is called an "open column", otherwise it is called a "close column."

FRONT AND FACING DISTANCE.

Division of the Company Into Three or Four Platoons.

In Austria, France, and Italy, platoons are considered as distinct bodies, so long as they have sufficient numerical strength. They are placed side by side and constitute the company in line. In Germany and Russia the company is at each formation divided into platoons of approximately equal strength. In the armies of Austria, France, and Italy, it is contended that the soldier has nothing further to learn when once he is taken up for duty in the company. All movements are executed, after preparatory commands given by the company commanders, by commands of execution or signals given by platoon commanders. The execution of movements is retarded by this procedure and the movement itself becomes clumsy. It would also seem that the multiplicity of commands in the simple, oft-repeated movements, is superfluous, especially in the weak platoons at peace strength.

Column of platoons from line is formed in Austria as follows : At the preparatory command, "Column," given by the company commander, the leaders of the 1st, 3rd, and 4th platoons command at once, as in forming column of fours to the front, "Fours right , column right ." At the command "march," the platoons step off, each turning in column to the rear, and are conducted to their new positions, halted, and dressed to the right .

The companies of all powers, those of Germany, Japan, and Belgium excepted, are divided into four platoons; each two platoons may in addition be combined into a half-company. The German, Japanese, and Belgian companies are divided into three platoons. "The platoon is not an independent subdivision by reason of the mere fact that it consists of a certain number of men, but because the term platoon denotes a force led by a man of superior intelligence. The officer commanding the platoon makes it what it should be. The strength of the platoon is therefore solely dependent upon the number of officers available." .

The obvious advantage of the three-platoon organization of the company is that fewer platoon commanders are required, which fact is well worthy of attention in the mobilization of units of both Line and Reserve, especially in view of the extraordinarily heavy casualties among the troop leaders in the course of a campaign.

The eight infantry regiments and the J?ger-Battalion of the Xth Army Corps had, at this time, instead of the required 506 officers, only 286, of which number 174 were for duty. The 22nd Infantry Division had only 108 officers left; companies and even half-battalions were led into action by very young officers of the Reserve, and, on many occasions, even by vice 1st sergeants.

On the other hand, it should be remembered that in armies consisting of militia it is considerably more difficult to command a platoon of 60-70 men than to command one of 40-50 men. A disadvantage inseparably connected with the four-platoon company is the small size of the platoons during peace exercises. On account of this circumstance most regulations permit the three-platoon formation when the company is small, because platoons consisting of less than ten files are of no instructional value. An advantage of the three-platoon company is the simplicity and rapidity with which changes from one formation to another may be effected.

The three-unit column of platoons is very broad for movements on the battlefield. It offers, when numbering 200 rifles, a target about 25 m. wide and only 15 m. deep. The four-unit column of platoons is better suited for movements. With a front of 17 m., its depth is only 15 m., when the distances between platoons are assumed to be 6 paces . .

For a company consisting of 200 rifles, the following would be the forms:

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