: Revolutionary Europe 1789-1815 by Stephens H Morse Henry Morse - Europe History 1789-1815

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INTRODUCTION

PAGE

Elections of 1797 in France--Policy of the Clichians--Struggle between the Directors and the Clichians--Negotiations for Peace between England and the Directory--Changes in the French Ministry--Revolution of 18th Fructidor--Bonaparte in Italy--Occupation of Venice--The Ligurian and Cisalpine Republics formed--Annexation of the Ionian Islands by France--Treaty of Campo-Formio--Capture of Mayence--The Batavian Republic--Battle of Camperdown--Bonaparte's Expedition to the East--Capture of Malta--Conquest of Egypt--Battle of the Nile--Internal Policy of the Directory after 18th Fructidor--Foreign Policy--Attitude of England, Prussia, Austria, and Russia--The Helvetian Republic--Italian Affairs--The Roman and Parthenopean Republics formed--Occupation of Piedmont and Tuscany by France--The Law of Conscription--Outbreak of War between Austria and France--Murder of the French Plenipotentiaries at Rastadt--The Campaign of 1799--In Italy--Battles of Cassano, the Trebbia and Novi--Italy lost to France--In Switzerland--Battle of Zurich--In Holland--Battles of Bergen--Results of the Campaign of 1799--Policy and Character of the Emperor Paul of Russia--Bonaparte's Campaign of 1799 in Syria--Siege of Acre--Battle of Mount Tabor--Struggle between the Directors and the Legislature in France--Revolution of 22d Prairial--Changes in the Directory and Ministry--Bonaparte's return to France--Revolution of 18th Brumaire--End of the Government of the Directory in France, 187

Napoleon, Emperor of the French--His Coronation as Emperor and as King of Italy--The Imperial Court--The Grand Dignitaries, Marshals, and Imperial Household--Institutions of the Empire--Ministers and Government--The Camp at Boulogne--Pitt's last coalition--Campaign of 1805--Capitulation of Ulm--Battles of Austerlitz and Caldiero--Battle of Trafalgar--Treaty of Pressburg--Death of Pitt--Prussia declares War--Campaign of Jena--Campaign of Eylau--Campaign of Friedland--Interview and Peace of Tilsit--The Continental Blockade--Capture of the Danish Fleet by England--French Invasion and Conquest of Portugal--State of Sweden--The Rearrangement of Europe--Louis Bonaparte King of Holland--Italy--Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples--Battle of Maida--Rearrangement of Germany--Bavaria--W?rtemburg--Baden--Jerome Bonaparte King of Westphalia--Murat Grand Duke of Berg--Saxony--Smaller States of Germany--Mediatisation of Petty Princes--Confederation of the Rhine--Poland--The Grand Duchy of Warsaw--Conference of Erfurt, 237

Napoleon's two reverses between the Treaty of Tilsit and the Congress of Erfurt--England sends an army to Portugal--Campaign of Vimeiro and Convention of Cintra--The Revolution in Spain--Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain--Victory of Medina del Rio Seco and Capitulation of Baylen--Napoleon in Spain--Sir John Moore's advance--Battle of Corunna--The Resurrection of Austria--Ministry of Stadion--Campaign of Wagram--Treaty of Vienna--Campaign of 1809 in the Peninsula--Battle of Talavera--Expedition to Walcheren--Napoleon and the Pope--Annexation of Rome--Revolution in Sweden--Revolution in Turkey--Treaty of Bucharest--Greatest Extension of Napoleon's dominions--Internal Organisation of the Empire--The new Nobility--Internal reforms--Law--Finance--Education--Extension of these reforms through Europe--Disappearance of Serfdom--Religious Toleration--Reorganisation of Prussia--Reforms of Stein and Scharnhorst--Revival of German National feeling--Marriage of Napoleon to the Archduchess Marie Louise--Birth of the King of Rome--Steady opposition of England to Napoleon--Policies of Canning and Castlereagh--Campaigns of 1810 and 1811 in the Peninsula--Signs of the decline of Napoleon's power between 1808 and 1812, 263

APPENDICES

INDEX, 377

MAPS

INTRODUCTION

The period from 1789 to 1815--that is, the era of the French Revolution and of the domination of Napoleon--marks one of the most important transitions in the history of Europe. Great as is the difference between the material condition of the Europe of the nineteenth century, with its railways and its electric telegraphs, and the Europe of the eighteenth century, with its bad roads and uncertain posts, it is not greater than the contrast between the political, social, and economical ideas which prevailed then and which prevail now. Modern principles, that mark a new departure in human progress and in its evidence, Civilisation, took their rise during this epoch of transition, and their development underlies the history of the period, and gives the key to its meaning.

The conception that government exists for the promotion of the security and prosperity of the governed was fully grasped in the eighteenth century. But it was held alike by philosophers and rulers, alike in civilised England and in Russia emerging from barbarism that, whilst government existed for the good of the people, it must not be administered by the people. This fundamental principle is in the nineteenth century entirely denied. It is now believed that the government should be directed by the people through their representatives, and that it is better for a nation to make mistakes in the course of its self-government than to be ruled, be it ever so wisely, by an irresponsible monarch. This notion of the sovereignty of the people was energetically propounded during the great Revolution in France. It is not yet universally accepted in all the states of modern Europe. But it has profoundly affected the political development of the nineteenth century. It lies at the base of one group of modern political ideas; and, though in 1815 it seemed to have been propounded only to be condemned, one of the most striking features of the modern history of Europe since the Congress of Vienna, has been its gradual acceptance and steady growth in civilised countries.

The third modern notion which has transformed Europe is the recognition of the principle of personal and individual liberty. Feudalism left the impress of its graduation of rights and duties marked deeply on the constitutions of the European States. The sovereignty of the people implies political liberty of action; feudalism denied the propriety and advantages of social and economical freedom. Theoretically, freedom of individual thought and action was acknowledged to be a good thing by all wise philosophers and rulers. Practically, the poorer classes were kept in bondage either as agricultural serfs by their lords or as journeymen workmen by the trade-guilds. Where personal and individual liberty had been attained, political liberty became an object of ambition, and political liberty led to the idea of the sovereignty of the people. The last vestiges of feudalism were swept away during this era of transition. The doctrines of the French Revolution did more than the victories of Napoleon to destroy the political system of the eighteenth century. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 might return to the former notions of government and the State, but it did not attempt to restore the old restrictions on individual liberty. With personal freedom acknowledged, the reactionary tendency of the Congress of Vienna was left of no effect. Liberty of thought and action led to the resurrection of the conceptions of nationality and of the sovereignty of the people, which were but for the moment extinguished by the defeat of France in the person of Napoleon by the armies of united Europe.

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