: Influences of Geographic Environment On the Basis of Ratzel's System of Anthropo-Geography by Semple Ellen Churchill - Human geography; Human beings Effect of environment on Anthropology

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Man a product of the earth's surface--Persistent effect of geographic barriers--Recurrent influences of nature-made highways--Regions of historical similarity--Persistence of climatic influences--Relation of geography to history--Multiplicity of geographic factors--Evolution of geographic relations--Interplay of geographic factors--Direct and indirect effects of environment--Indirect effects in differentiation of colonial peoples--General importance of indirect effects--Time element--Previous habitat--Transplanted religions--Partial response to environment--The larger conception of environment--Unity of the earth and the human race.

Four classes of influences--Physical effects of environment--Stature and environment--Effects of dominant activities--Physical effects of climate--Pigmentation in relation to heat and light--Pigmentation and altitude--Difficulty of generalization from geographic distribution--Psychical effects--In Religion--In mind and character--In language--The great man in history--Economic and social effects--Size of the social group--Effects on movements of peoples--Segregation and accessibility--Change of habitat.

Universality of such movements--The name Historical Movement--Its evolution--Its importance in history--Geographical interpretation of historical movement--Mobility of primitive peoples--Civilization and mobility--Migration and ethnic mingling--Cultural modification during migration--The transit land--War as form of historical movement--Slavery--Military colonies--Withdrawal and flight--Natural regions of asylum--Emigration and colonization--Commerce as a form of historical movement--Movements due to religion--Historical movement and race distribution--Zonal distribution--Movements to like or better geographic conditions--Their direction--Return movements--Regions of attraction and repulsion--Psychical influences in certain movements--Two results of historical movement--Differentiation and area--Differentiation and isolation--Geographic conditions of heterogeneity and homogeneity--Assimilation--Elimination of unfit variants through historical movement--Geographical origins.

The importance of geographical location--Content of the term location--Intercontinental location--Natural versus vicinal location--Naturally defined location--Vicinal location--Vicinal groups of similar or diverse race and culture--Thalassic vicinal location--Complementary locations--Continuous and scattered location--Central versus peripheral location--Mutual relations between center and periphery--Inland and coastward expansion--Reaction between center and periphery--Periphery in colonization--Dominant historical side--Change of historical front--Contrasted historical sides--One-sided historical location--Scattered location--Due to adverse geographic conditions--Island way stations on maritime routes--Scattered location of primitive peoples--Ethnic islands of expansion and decline--Discontinuous distribution--Contrasted location--Geographical polarity--Geographical marks of growth and decline--Interpretation of scattered and marginal location--Contrast between ethnic islands of growth and decline.

The size of the earth--Relation of area to life--Area and differentiation--The struggle for space--National area an index of social and political development--The Oikoumene--The unity of the human species in relation to the earth--Isolation and differentiation--Monotonous race type of small area--Wide race distribution and inner diversities--Large area a guarantee of racial or national permanence--Weakness of small states--Protection of large area to primitive peoples--Contrast of large and small areas in bio-geography--Political domination of large areas--Area and literature--Small geographic base of primitive societies--Influence of small, confined areas--The process of territorial growth--Historical advance from small to large areas--Gradations in area and in development--Preliminaries to ethnic and political expansion--Significance of sphere of influence or activity--Nature of expansion in new and old countries--Relation of ethnic to political expansion--Relation of people and state to political boundary--Expansion of civilization--Cultural advantages of large political area--Politico-economic advantages--Political area and the national horizon--National estimates of area--Limitations of small tribal conceptions--Evolution of territorial policies--Colonial expansion--The mind of colonials.

The boundary zone in Nature--Oscillating boundaries of the habitable area of the earth--Wallace's Line a typical boundary zone--Boundaries as limits of expansion--Boundary zone as index of growth or decline--Breadth of boundary zone--Broad frontier zones of active expansion--Value of barrier boundaries--The sea as the absolute boundary--Natural boundaries as bases of ethnic and political boundaries--Primitive waste boundaries--Alien intrusions into border wastes--Politico-economic significance of the waste boundary--Common boundary districts--Tariff free zones--Boundary zones of mingled race elements--Assimilation of civilization in boundary zones--Relation of ethnic and cultural assimilation--The border zone of assimilation in political expansion--Tendency toward defection along political frontiers--The spirit of colonial frontiers--Free border states as political survivals--Guardians of the marches--Lawless citizens deported to political frontiers--Drift of lawless elements to the frontiers--Asylums beyond the border.

The protection of a water frontier--Pile villages of ancient times--Modern pile dwellings--Their geographic distribution--River-dwellers in old and popular lands--Man's encroachment upon the sea by reclamation of land--The struggle with the water--Mound villages in river flood-plains--Social and political gain by control of the water--A factor in early civilization of arid lands--The economy of the water--Fisheries--Factors in maritime expansion--Fisheries as nurseries of seamen--Anthropo-geographic importance of navigation.

Rivers as intermediaries between land and sea--Sea navigation merges into river navigation--Historical importance of seas and oceans influenced by their debouching streams--Lack of coast articulations supplied by rivers--River highways as basis of commercial pre?minence--Importance of rivers in large countries--Rivers as highways of expansion--Determinants of routes in arid or semi-arid lands--Increasing historical importance of rivers from source to mouth--Value of location at hydrographic centers--Effect of current upon trade and expansion--Importance of mouth to upstream people--Prevention of monopoly of river mouths--Motive for canals in lower course--Watershed canals for extension of inland waterways--Rivers and railroads--Natural unity of every river system--In arid lands as common source of water supply--Tendency towards ethnic and cultural unity in a river valley--Identity of country with river valley--Rivers as boundaries of races and peoples--Rivers as political boundaries--Fluvial settlements and peoples--Boatman tribes or castes--River islands as protected sites--River and lake islands as robber strongholds--River peninsulas--River islands as sites of trading posts and colonies--Swamps as barriers and boundaries--Swamps as regions of survivals--Swamps as places of refuge--The spirit of the marshes--Economic and political importance of lakes--Lakes as nuclei of states--Lakes as fresh-water seas.

Insularity of the land-masses--Classification of land-masses according to size and location--Effect of the size of land-masses--Independence due to location versus independence due to size--Continental convergence and ethnic kinship--Africa's location--The Atlantic abyss--Geographical character of the Pacific--Pacific affinities of North America--The Atlantic face of America as the infant Orient of the world--The Atlantic abyss in the movements of peoples--Races and continents--Contrast of the northern and southern continents--Effects of continental structure upon historical development--Structure of North and South America--Cultural superiority of Pacific slope Indians--Coast articulations of continents--Importance of size in continental articulations--Peninsular conditions most favorable to historical development--The continental base of peninsulas--Continental base a zone of transition--Continental base the scene of invasion and war--Peninsular extremities as areas of isolation--Ethnic unity of peninsulas--Peninsulas as intermediaries.

Physical relationship between islands and peninsulas--Character of insular flora and fauna--Paradoxical influences of island habitat on man--Conservative and radical tendencies born of isolation and accessibility--Islands as nurseries and disseminators of distinctive civilizations--Limitation of small area in insular history--Sources of ethnic stock of islands on nearest mainland. Ethnic divergence with increased isolation--Differentiation of peoples and civilizations in islands--Differentiation of language--Unification of race in islands--Remoter sources of island populations--Double sources--Mixed population of small thalassic isles--Significant location of island way stations--Thalassic islands as goals of maritime expansion--Political detachability of islands--Insular weakness based upon small area--Island fragments of broken empires--Area and location as factors in political autonomy of islands--Historical effects of island isolation in primitive retardation--Later stimulation of development--Excessive isolation--Protection of an island environment--Islands as places of refuge--Islands as places of survival--Effects of small area in islands--Economic limitations of their small area--Dense population of islands--Geographic causes of this density--Oceanic climate as factor--Relation of density to size--Density affected by a focal location for trade--Overflow of island population and colonies to the mainland--Precocious development of island agriculture--Intensive tillage--Emigration and colonization from islands--Recent emigration from islands--Maritime enterprise as outlet--Artificial checks to population--Polyandry--Infanticide--Low valuation of human life.

Relief of the sea floor--Mean elevations of the continents--Distribution of relief--Homologous reliefs and homologous histories--Anthropo-geography of lowlands--Extensive plains unfavorable to early development--Conditions for fusion in plains--Retardation due to monotonous environment--Influence of slight geographic features in plains--Plains and political expansion--Arid plains--Nomadism--Pastoral life--Pastoral nomads of Arctic plains--Historical importance of steppe nomads--Mobility of pastoral nomads--Seasonal migrations--Marauding expeditions--Forms of defense against nomad depredations--Pastoral life as a training for soldiers--Capacity for political organization and consolidation--Centralization versus decentralization in nomadism--Spirit of independence among nomads--Resistance to conquest--Curtailment of nomadism--Supplementary agriculture of pastoral nomadism--Irrigation and horticulture--Scant diet of nomads--Effects of a diminishing water supply--Checks to population--Trade of nomads--Pastoral nomads as middlemen--Desert markets--Nomad industries--Arid lands as areas of arrested development--Mental and moral qualities of nomads--Religion of pastoral nomads.

Man as part of the mobile envelope of the earth--Inaccessibility of mountains--Mountains as transit regions--Transition forms of relief between highlands and lowlands--Piedmont belts as boundary zones--Density of population in piedmont belts--Piedmont towns and cities--Piedmonts as colonial or backwoods frontiers--Mountain carriers--Power of mountain barriers to block or deflect historical movement--Significance of mountain valleys--Longitudinal valleys--Passes in mountain barriers--Breadth of mountain barriers--Dominant transmontane routes--Height and form of mountain barriers--Contrasted accessibility of opposite slopes--Political and ethnic effects--Persistence of barrier nature--Importance of mountain passes--Geographic conditions affecting the historical importance of passes--Passes determine the transmontane routes--Navigable river approaches to passes--Types of settlement in the valley approaches--Pass cities and their markets--Pass peoples--Their political importance.

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